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AUTHOR: 


NIEDERMANN,  MAX 


TITLE: 


OUTLINES  OF  LATIN 
PHONETICS 

PLA  CE : 

LONDON 

DATE: 

1910 


COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY  LIBRARIES 
PRESERVATION  DEPARTMENT 


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OUTLINES  OF  LATIN    PHONETICS 


i   9 


OUTLINES 


OF 


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*#^- 


LATIN     PHONETICS 


BY 


PROFESSOR  MAX   NIEDERMANN 


«^% 


EDITED   BY 

PROFESSOR  H.  A.  STRONG,  M.A.,  LL.D., 

EMERITUS  PROFESSOR  OF  LATIN,  LIVERPOOL  UNIVERSITY 

AND 

H.   STEWART,   B.A. 

LECTURER  IN  CLASSICS,  LIVERPOOL  UNIVERSITY 


.  ^  '^ 


LONDON: 
GEORGE  ROUTLEDGE  '8:  SONS;tlMlTED 
NEW  YORK:    E.   P.   DUITON   &  C'O.   "    *    ^ 

1910 


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tit      « 


INTRODUCTION. 

It  has  long  been  recognised  that  the  methods  of  teaching 
Latin  grammar  in  vogue  in  England  are  marked  by  an 
absence  of  scientific  accuracy  and  by  a  neglect  of  philo- 
logical principles.     The  conditions  that  Professor  Meillet 
in  his  foreword  to  this  book  describes  as  existing  in  France 
obtain  in  this  country  as  well  :  '  Separated  from  all  modern 
conceptions,  and  still  scholastic  in  its  essence  and  formation, 
grammatical  instruction  has  become  a  dead  element;   it 
is  confined  to  facts  unconnected  by  any  ideas  or  connected 
only  by  ideas  which  are  now  obsolete  and  conflicting  with 
everything  else   learnt   by  the  pupil.      Thus   every  day 
opinion  becomes  more  hostile  to  grammar,  and  every  year 
fewer  hours  are  assigned  to  a  subject  the  barren  nature 
of  which  is  felt  by  every  one.     Yet,'  as  the  same  critic 
continues,  '  it  might  be  thought  that  a  science  the  essen- 
tial object  of  which  is  to  study  the  principal  means  of 
expression  of  human  thought  might  deserve  the  attention 
of   schoolboys,   and   be  capable,    if   properly  taught,   of 
awakening  their  lively  interest.' 

In  the  hope,  then,  of  filling  to  some  extent  an  admitted 
blank  in  the  public  school  curriculum,  the  editors  have 
translated  this  little  book,  which  has  met  with  a  large 
measure  of  favour  on  the  Continent.  It  may  prove  use- 
ful in  University  courses  as  well  as  in  schools.     It  was 


\ 


^  LATIN    PHONETICS 

intended,  however,  not  for  students,  but  for  schoolboys 
between  the  ages  of  fifteen  and  eighteen  with  a  sufficient 
grounding  in  the  elements  of  Latin.  The  author  has 
omitted  references  to  Greek,  believing  that  a  large 
majority  of  such  boys  know  nothing,  or  next  to  nothing, 
of  that  language ;  and,  as  Professor  MeiUet  remarks  with 
justice,  this  has  also  definite  advantages  from  a  purely 
scientific  point  of  view:  Latin  has  closer  connections 
with  Oscan  and  Umbrian  and  the  Celtic  dialects  than 

with  Greek. 

The  translators  have  compiled  an  index,  but  have 
refrained,  except  in  a  few  instances,  from  inserting  notes, 
not  only  from  reluctance  to  burden  the  outline  with 
additional  matter,  but  chiefly  in  the  conviction  that 
further  elucidation  and  comment  should  be  left  to  the 
teacher. 

*  before  a  word  indicates  a  hypothetical  form  restored 

by  induction. 

>    means    'developed    into';    U,   e    >    i  means   'e 

developed  into  i.' 

O.L.  =  Old  Latin. 

)  (  means  *  contrasted  with.' 

A  small  dash  before  or  after,  or  both  before  and  after 
a  letter  or  a  combination  of  letters,  marks  an  initial, 
final,  or  medial  sound;  e.g.,  5- =  initial  5, -s  =  final  5, -s- = 

medial  s.  . 

Since  Latin  presents  numerous  grammatical  coincidences 
with  Greek,  Celtic,  Slavonic  and  several  other  languages, 
we  must  conclude  that  all  these  languages  develop  from 


'  Mi 


# 


« 


f 


INTRODUCTION 

Vll 

a  common  source,  that  they  continue  a  prehistoric  common 
language  just  as  French,  Itahan,  Spanish,  etc..  continue 
Utui.  rh.s  prelustor,c  language  is  known  as  the  Indo- 
European ;  ,ts  various  transformations,  represented  by  the 
languages  to  which  we  have  just  referred,  are  called  Indo- 
iiiuropean  languages. 

after  the  termination  .s  cut  off.     The  termination  is  the 
variable  element  which  serves  to  indicate  the  part  played 
by  the  word  m  the  sentence.     Thus  due  is  the  stem  of 
du^,  manu-  of  manus,  ama-  of  amare,  and  so  on     The 
division  into  stem  and  termination    in    Latin  is  often 
difficult,   and  in   several  cases  quite  impossible  without 
the  help  of  Its  cognate  languages.     Sometimes  the  stem 
cannot  be  reduced  further,  as.  for  example.  d,l:  in  du., 
but  general^  it  can  be  split  up  into  two  quite  distinct 
factors,  each  of  which  is  found  in  other  combinations. 
Consider,  for  example,   eantu-,   the  stem  of  cantus,  -us. 
The  ebment  can-  is  seen  also  in  cano,  canor,  cantor,  etc 
and  the  element  -tu-  in  gustus,  -us;  partus,  -us;  sumptu^, 
-us    etc      Similarly  the  analysis   of  rube-,  the  stem   of 
rubere  shows  a  factor  rUb-   which   is   contained  also  in 
ruber,  rubor,  rubia  ('madder,'  a  plant  from  whose  roots 
IS  made  a  red  dye),  and  a  factor  -e-  found   in  cafeye 
latere,  nitere,  etc.     Of  these  two  constituent  elements  of 
the  stem  the  first  is  called  the  root,  the  second  the  suffix 
Ihus  a  word  consists  normally  of  three  parts-root,  suffix 
and  termination.  1  ' 

1  [From  *  on  is  translated  from  the  Frfinrh      v^u^  •  ^ 
oat«d  throughout  by  «,uare  b  Jke,^  ]  ^"°"'''  ""**'  "«  '-"l'- 


>'*' 


'■^1 


LATIN   PHONETICS. 


# 


* 


PBELIMINARY   OBSERVATIONS. 

§  1.   Phonetics  is  the  science  dealing  with  the  sounds 
which  constitute  language.     By  sounds  are  meant  all  the 
impressions  that  are  made   on  our  organs  of   hearing 
^        determined  by  the   modifications  which    the    organs  of 
speech  produce  on  the  current  of  breath  issuing  from  the 
lungs.     These  impressions  may  be  investigated  from  two 
points  of  view :  (1)  from  that  of  their  physiological  pro- 
duction, and  (2)  from  that  of  their  historical  development. 
Indeed,  sounds  depend  for  their  development   on  space 
H        and  time.     The  transformations  which  they  undergo  occur 
unconsciously,  i.e.,  independently  of  the  will  or  reflection 
of  the  speaker.    They  are  brought  about  by  imperceptible 
gradations,  and  according  to  unchangeable  laws.    That  is  to 
say,  all  sounds,  or  groups  of  sounds,  if  exposed  to  identical 
conditions,  develop  with  absolute  regularity.    Exceptions 
11^        to  this  rule,  which  is  the  fundamental  principle  of  the 
linguistic  method,  are  merely  apparent.     They  are  mostly 
to    be    explained    as   being   the   result   of  disturbances 
in   the   normal  course  of  phonetic  laws  brought  about 
by  a  psychological  cause,  which  we  call  analogy.      For 
example,  in  Latin,  in  an  open  medial  syllable  {i.e.,  where 
0^      the  vowel  is  followed    by  a  single  consonant   only),   a 
short  (T  appears    unchanged  in  such  words  as   comeTdo, 


2  LATIN    PHONETICS 

app«^to,  obt<?go,  diss<9C0,  subv«9nio ;  while  it  becomes  i  in  such 
words  as  praesideo  ( )  (  s^deo),  constiti  (  )  {  sUti),  colligo 
( )  ( lego),  ausplcis  (genitive  of  ausp^x),  sustmeo  ( )  ( t«9neo). 
But  we  must  be  careful  not  to  regard  this  difference  of 
treatment  as  a  capricious  trick  of  language.  As  a  matter 
of  fact,  the  transition  of  e  into  ^  took  place  in  all  the 
words  mentioned  ;  but  analogy  has  restored  the  original 
€  in  comedo,  app^to,  obt^go,  diss^co,  subv^nio,  in  order  to 
accentuate  their  affinity  with  6do,  p6to,  etc.  Thus  analogy 
acts  with  a  levelling  tendency  on  words  related  by  gram- 
matical function  or  signification. 


A 


0 


f! 


GENERAL   THEORY   OF   SOUNDS 


GENERAL   THEORY   OF   SOUNDS. 

§  2.  Spoken  language  is  produced  by  the  current  of  air 
issuing  from   the  mouth  in  the   shape  of  breath.     The 
breath,   expelled  from  the  lungs,  passes  first  through  the 
windpipe  and  then  into  the  larynx.     The  larynx  is  formed 
of  several  cartilages,   between  which   are  stretched  two 
membranes— the  vocal  chords.     Between  these  again  lies  a 
slit  called  the  glottis.     If  the  current  of  breath  finds  the 
glottis  closed,  it  forces  its  way  out  by  a  series  of  jerks 
which  set  the  vocal  chords  in  vibration.     On  the  other 
hand,  if  it  finds  the  glottis  open,  it  passes  freely  through, 
and  sets  up  no  movement  of  the  vocal  chords.     In  the 
former  case  the  sound  produced  is  said  to  be  voiced ;  in 
the  latter  case,  breathed.     A  simple  method  of  testing  to 
which  of  these  two  categories  any  given  sound  belongs  is 
to  close  the  ears  while  uttering  the  sound.     If  you  hear 
a  buzzing  noise  in  the  head,  the  sound  produced  is  voiced ; 
if  no  buzzing  sound  is  heard,  it  is  breathed.     After  passing 
through  the  glottis  the  breath  enters  the  pharynx,  from 
which  it  escapes  through  the  mouth  or    the    nose,    or 
through  both  exits  simultaneously,  according  as  the  soft 
palate,   a  membraneous  partition  between  the  cavity  of 
the  mouth  and  that  of  the  nose,  is  raised,  depressed,  or 
held  in  balance  in  an  intermediate  position  by  its  muscles. 
The  mouth  plays  a  double  part  in  sound  production. 
Sometimes  it  serves  merely  as  a  sounding-board  to  the 
sound  produced  in  the  larynx ;  at  other  times,  by  a  series 
of   stoppages,   or  narrowing  processes,    it   puts    various 


Jt 


4  LATIN    PHONETICS 

obstacles  in  the  way  of  the  breath.  Consequently  sounds 
are  divided  into  (a)  those  in  the  utterance  of  which 
the  mouth  cavity  maintains  unchanged  the  position  it 
has  once  adopted,  and  {b)  those  which  depend  entirely 
or  mainly  on  a  closing  or  opening  movement.  The 
former  are  called  vowels ;  the  latter  consonants.  It  is 
important,  however,  to  notice  carefully  that  one  cannot 
draw  an  absolute  line  between  these  two  classes  of 
sounds  [e.g.i  the  sonant  use  of  consonants  /,  tw,  n  (also 
ng^  i.e.,  «^),  r,  z,  represented  as  /,  ^,  etc.,  spelt,  e.g., 
TdXtle,  Birmingham,  writt^w,  can  ^ive,  as\  f  is  not 
represented  in  English,  but  is  common  in  German,  e.g., 
*  butter.']  On  the  other  hand  2,  ou,  ii  are  true  vowels  in 
the  French  words  je  lie,  je  tue,  je  loue;  but  as  they 
admit  of  a  distinct  raising  of  the  tongue,  they  can  act 
also  as  movements  of  closing  and  opening,  that  is  to 
say  as  consonants ;  compare  nous  lions,  nous  tuons,  nous 
louons,  where,  in  modern  French,  each  word  is  pronounced 
as  a  monosyllable.  With  this  reservation  we  may  for 
convenience  maintain  the  accepted  terms  vowel  and 
consonant. 

§  3.  Starting  with  the  neutral  vowel  a,  which  is  pro- 
nounced with  the  tongue  lying  loosely  on  the  base  of  the 
mouth  cavity,  we  may  divide  the  vowels  into  front  and 
hack  vowels.  This  distinction  is  based  upon  whether  the 
tongue  lies  bunched  in  the  front  or  the  back  part  of 
the  mouth.  Another  possible  division  may  be  drawn 
dependent  on  the  vertical  distance  between  the  top  of 
the  arched  part  of  the  tongue  and  the  roof  of  the  hard 
palate.  In  this  way  we  distinguish  between  low  and  high 
vowels,  more  commonly  known  as  open  and  close  vowels.^ 

1  Cf.  Giles,  §  79. 


^ 


I  * 


^K 


<> 


GENERAL    THEORY   OF   SOUNDS  5 

Two  vowels  of  different  timbre  or  acoustic  quality, 
uttered  without  break  in  the  same  syllable,  constitute 
a  diphthong. 

Diagram  of  the  Organs  of  Speech  (after   Victor). 


m 


(a)  nasal  cavity. 
(6)  hard  palate, 
(c)  soft  palate, 
(rf)  mouth  cavity. 
{e)  tongue. 
(/)  pharynx. 
{g)  hyoid  bone. 
(h)  epiglottis, 
(i)  rima  glottidia. 
{k)  vocal  chord. 
(0  thyroid  cartilage, 
(m)  laryngal  cavity. 
(n)  tracheal  rings. 
(o)  air  tube. 
[p)  oesophagus. 


>\;' 


§  4.  Consonants  fall  into  two  main  categories  :  close 
or  stops,  and  narrow.  The  first  are  characterised  by  a 
complete  stoppage,  the  latter  by  a  mere  narrowing  of 
the  air  passage.  The  stops  are  instantaneous  explosive 
sounds ;  the  narrow,  on  the  other  hand,  can  be  maintained 
for  a  more  or  less  long  time.  Hence  the  stops  are  some- 
times called  'momentary'  and  the  narrow  'continuous' 
sounds.  The  narrow  are  divided  into  four  categories, 
which  are    named    after  the  manner  in  which  the  air 


p=^5«y|jii.s  '» •■".-.  ->  .^r---! 


1/ 


6  LATIN    PHONETICS 

escapes  in  the  process  of  their  production :  Fricatives  or 
Spirants,  Trilled  Consonants,  Lateral  or  Divided  Con- 
sonants (these  last  two  are  often  spoken  of  by  the  common 
name  of  Liquids)^  and  Nasals. 

In  the  production  of  spirants  the  current  of  air  finds 
the  breath  passage  of  the  mouth  narrowed,  and  produces 
a  rubbing  sound. 

The  trilled  consonants  are  determined  by  the  rapid 
vibration  against  the  teeth  roots  of  an  elastic  organ  (the 
uvula  or  tip  of  the  tongue),  which  is  displaced  by  the 
breath,  and  then  returns  to  its  former  position  [or  by 
vibration  of  the  flexible  parts  of  the  mouth  between 
themselves,  e.g.^  the  lips]. 

Divided  consonants  are  formed  when  the  tip  or  back  of 
the  tongue  is  pressed  against  the  central  line  of  the  hard 
palate,  from  the  teeth  to  the  soft  palate,  and  blocks  the 
path  for  the  breath,  which  escapes  sideways. 

Finally,  the  nasals  are  produced  when  the  mouth  is 
closed,  but  the  soft  palate  lowered,  so  that  the  air  can 
pass  freely  through  the  nose. 

Another  division  of  the  consonants  may  be  made  accord- 
ing to  the  place  in  the  mouth  where  the  obstacle  arises, 
which  conditions  the  sound  characteristic  of  each. 

[Divided  thus  there  are  seven  main  classes  : — 


n' 


GENERAL    THEORY    OF    SOUNDS  7 

and  the  roots  of  the  upper  teeth,  e.g.y  i  as  in  temper  (stop) ; 
s  as  in  summer  (spirant) ;  n  as  in  nowhere  (nasal). 

(5)  Interdental,  formed  by  the  tip  of  the  tongue  and  the 
tips  of  the  front  teeth,  e.g.,  th  as  in  then,  thin  (spirants). 

(6)  Labiodental,  formed  by  the  lower  lip  and  upper 
teeth,  e.g.,  f  And  v  as  in /ally  veal  (spirants). 

(7)  Labial,  formed  by  the  upper  and  lower  lips,  e.g.,p,  b, 
w,  m  (and  sometimes  r  when  used  alone  as  an  ejaculation), 
as  in  pile,  beer  (stops);  woman,  man  (nasals).] 


4' 


/> 


(1)  Velar,  back  or  guttural,  formed  by  the  root  of  the 
tongue  and  the  soft  palate  (velum),  e.g.,  ch  as  in  Scotch 
loch  (spirant) ;  ng  or  i9  as  in  being  (nasal). 

(2)  Palatal  or  front,  formed  by  the  middle  of  the  tongue 
and  the  hard  palate,  e.g.,  k  before  c  or  i  in  such  words  as 
Kent,  kindred  (stop). 

(3)  Cerebral,  formed  by  the  blade  of  the  tongue  and  the 
front  of  the  hard  palate,  e.g.^  s  =  shj  z  =  zh,  as  in  daze 
(spirant). 

(4)  Dental  (alveolar),  formed  by  the  tip  of  the  tongue 


*v 


f^ 


'■'"'-,'  '*     '^ 


t  i=»*^^'a-S';;;^^  TV,  f  w^^'t»:» 


^*> 


8 


LATIN    PHONETICS 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  THE  LATIN  SOUNDS. 

§  5.  The  Latin  vowels  may,  according  to  the  principles 
laid  down  above,  be  represented  by  the  following  scheme, 
which  shows  the  different  positions  of  the  tongue : — 


«   03 

o  o 

03   3 

w  a 

o 


Tongue 
in  front  of  mouth.        in  back  of  mouth, 
least >    i  u 

I  U 

e  6 

6  ^    o 
most >  a 


Ncfte. — The  vowel  y,   n©t  mentioned  in  the  scheme,  occurs 
only  in  Greek  loanwords  (see  §  6,  note  iv.  3). 

There  were  four  diphthongs  in  classical  Latin,  viz.  : — 
eu  (very  rare,  see  §  22),  ae,  au,  oe. 

§  6.  In  the  following  Table  the  consonants  are  classified 
from  the  double  standpoint  of  the  form  and  place  of 
their  articulation  : — 


^. 


v*> 


»» 


^f 


^ 


h 


CLASSIFICATION   OF  THE  LATIN   SOUNDS       9 


Form  of 
Articulation. 

d 

Cm    O 

c3   o 
< 

■ 

03 

CO 

'3 

a 

Q 

• 

2 

Stops. 

■ 

voiced. 

b 

d 

g 

breathed. 

P 

t 

c,  k,  q 

Narrow. 

CO 

02 

voiced. 

breathed. 

f 

s 

• 

H 

voiced. 

r 

breathed. 

Q 

voiced. 

1 

breathed. 

Nasals. 

voiced. 

m 

n 

Id 

breathed. 

[For  fuller  table  see  Giles,  table  opposite,  p.  90.] 


*^ 


fs 


10 


LATIN    PHONETICS 


CLASSIFICATION   OF  THE   LATIN   SOUNDS      11 


Notes. 

(i.)  The  place  of  articulation  of  the  guttural  stops  is  not 
fixed.  The  tongue  touches  the  palate  more  or  less  back 
according  to  the  acoustic  quality  of  the  following  vowel. 
Before  e  and  i  the  position  is  at  the  hard  palate ;  before  a 
at  the  middle  of  the  palate,  i.e.,  half-way  between  the 
hard  and  soft  palates  ;  before  o  and  u  at  the  back  part  of 
palate,  i.e.,  the  soft  palate  or  velum.  It  is  probable  that 
in  O.L.  the  use  of  the  three  symbols  c,  k,  q,  corresponded 
to  these  three  positions.  Indeed,  it  seems  that  originally 
c  was  as  a  rule  written  before  i  and  e  {c'lvis,  cima ),  k  before 
a  (kcipnt,  karus),  q  before  o  and  u  (qSm^s,  qura).  Gradually, 
however,  the  use  of  c  became  general ;  k  disappeared  and 
left  but  a  few  traces  in  certain  abbreviations,  e.g.,'K  =  Kaeso 
(proper  name),  K  or  KAL^calendae,  KA=capimlis,  KK  =  cast- 
rorum,  etc.  ;  while  q  was  retained  only  in  the  combination  qu, 
which  denoted  the  breathed  labialised  guttural  in  words 
like  qui,  quae,  quod  (§  39).  Latin  recognised  also  two  kinds 
of  the  narrow  divided  I,  which  was  articulated  sometimes 
at  the  root  of  the  upper  front  teeth  (palatal  I) ;  sometimes 
at  the  soft  or  velar  palate  (velar  I).  The  /  was  palatal, 
(rt)  when  initial ;  (6)  when  medial  before  i ;  (c)  in  cases 
of  doubled  II.  It  was  velar  {a)  when  final ;  (6)  when 
medial  before  e,  a,  o,  u,  and  before  a  consonant. 

(ii.)  The  sound  represented  by  Latin  /  was  originally 
formed  by  pressing  the  lips  together.  But  at  a  relatively 
early  period  this  bilabial  ^  changed  into  a  labiodental  /, 
which,  as  in  English,  French,  and  German  was  produced 
by  the  pressure  exercised  by  the  upper  front  teeth  on  the 
lower  lip. 

(iii. )  10  denotes  the  guttural  nasal,  for  which  the  Latin 
alphabet  like  English,  French,  and  German  possessed  no 
special  symbol.  Before  a  guttural  stop  this  sound  was 
written  n,  as  in  angulus  and  ajiceps ;  before  a  nasal,  g  as 
in dignus  (§  69).  The  poet  Accius  (170-94  B.C.),  proposed  to 
employ  g  before  gutturals  as  well,  as  was  done  in  Greek. 
Thus   instead    of   angulus,   anceps,   ancora,   etc.,   he   would 


I 


» 


^i9 


?> 


vii 


>*  I     # 


^  [See  Edmonds,  pp.  77,  78.     The  bilabial  /  was  represented  in  early 
Latin  by /A,  e.g.,  FHEFHAKED,  the  old  form  of  fecit.] 


^ 


have  written  aggulus,  agcepSf  agcora.  His  suggestion,  how- 
ever, was  not  adopted. 

(iv^)  In  the  scheme  given  above  the  following  letters  are 
omitted  : — 

{!)  h,  which  was  mute  in  classical  times  as  in  modern 
French  (§  44). 

(2)  j  and  v,  which  were  semi- vowels,  at  least  as  late  as 
the  first  century  A.D.,  i.e.,  consonantal  forms  of  the  vowels 
i  and  u.  Their  sounds  were  equivalent  to  those  heard  in 
i  and  u  respectively  in  the  French  ^ncrre  (pronounced  pyer 
and  6chouer  (pronounced  echwe).  The  use  of  the  letters  j 
and  V  dates  from  modern  times.  Their  introduction  is  due 
to  the  scholars  of  the  Renaissance.  In  this  book  these 
convenient  symbols  will  be  employed  to  represent  initial 
consonantal  i  and  u.  The  Latin  alphabet,  however,  knew 
only  i  and  21. 

(3)  The  voiced  dental  spirant  ~,  which  was  unknown  in 
genuine  Latin  words,  of.  Quintilian,  Iiistit.  Oral.,  xii.  10, 
28  ;  namque  est  ipsis  statim  sonis  durior  (i.e.,  Latina 
facundia)  quando  et  jucundissimas  ex  Graecis  litteras  non 
habemus,  vocalem  alteram,  alteram  consonantem,  quibus 
nuUae  apud  eos  dulcius  spirant,  quas  mutuari  solemus 
quotiens  illorum  nominibus  utimur — quod  cum  contingit, 
nescio  quomodo  velut  hilarior  protinus  renidet  oratio,  ut  in 
zephyris  et  zophoris :  quae  si  nostris  litteris  scribantur, 
surdum  quiddam  et  barbarum  efficient. 

(4)  The  breathed  aspirate  stops  ch,  ph,  th,  originally 
restricted  to  Greek  loanwords  borrowed  at  a  compara- 
tively late  period,  such  as  chdrus,  mdchina,  phiUrum  (a 
love  charm),  romphaea  (a  broad-sword),  thesaurus,  cUhdra. 
Under  the  influence  of  these  aspiration  was  introduced, 
it  is  true,  from  the  end  of  the  second  century  B.C.,  in  a 
certain  number  of  words  of  genuine  Latin  origin,  as  in 
pulcher  (the  pronunciation  pulcer  was  obsolete  in  Cicero's 
time,  as  he  himself  informs  us,  cf.  Orator,  48,  §  160) ;  s^ul- 
chrum  (a  pronunciation  which  in  Cicero's  time  was  not 
common,  and  one  which  Cicero  personally  rejects  (cf. 
Orator,  loo.  cit.),  limpha  (spring  water),  sulphur,  etc. 
(§  35). 

(v.)  The  difference  which  manifests  itself  in  English  in 
the  names  given  to  the  letters  denoting  the  consonants  (/, 


; 


*  I  * 


12  LATIN    PHONETICS 

I,  m,  n,  r,  5,  being  called  ef,  elly  emm,  enn,  ar,  ess,  while  on 
the  other  hand,  6,  c,  rf,  gr,  k,  p,  q,  t  are  called  6e«,  cee^  dee^ 
gee^  kay,  pee,  kew,  tee)  goes  back  to  ancient  times  with  the 
reservation  that  until  the  second  half  of  the  fourth  century 
A.D.  the  letters  of  the  first  group  named  /,  I,  m,  etc.,  were 
pronounced  without  any  supporting  vowel.  Thus  up  to 
this  time  they  were  *  litterae  per  se  nominativae  sive  quae 
per  se  prolatae  nomen  suum  ostendunt '  (Charisius,  i.  p.  9, 
4  K  and  Priscian,  ii.  p.  8,  10  K)  just  like  a,  g,  i,  o,  u. 
Hence  the  Roman  grammarians  called  them  semivocales 
in  opposition  to  b,  c,  d,  g,  etc.,  which  were  called  mutae  ; 
•  quod  per  se  sine  adminiculo  vocalium  non  possunt  enun- 
tiari '  {DiomedeSy  i.  p.  423,  24  K). 


?    • 


>' 


I 


LATIN    ACCENTUATION 


13 


LATIN   ACCENTUATION. 

§  7.  In  the  sound  groups  which  we  call  words,  one  of 
the  syllables  in  each  word  may  be  brought  into  promin- 
ence either  by  strong  muscular  effort  or  by  a  more  or  less 
marked  elevation  of  the  voice. 

The  degree  of  prominence  obtained  by  special  energy 
in  articulation  forms  the  stress  accent,  or,  shortly,  *  the 
accent ' ;  that  which  is  due  to  the  change  from  a  lower  to 
a  higher  musical  note  makes  the  pitch  accent  or  tone. 

Now,  accent  and  tone  may  exist  simultaneously  in  one 
and  the  same  language.  This  was  the  case  in  pre-literary 
Latin.  Independently  of  the  alternations,  inherited  from 
the  Indo-European  language,  of  high  and  low  syllables,  a 
sharply-marked  stress  accent  had  begun  to  mark  the  first 
syllable  of  words.  But  at  the  beginning  of  the  literary 
period  this  stress  accent  disappeared,  as  it  was  ill-suited 
to  the  genius  of  the  Latin  language,  in  which  the  quan- 
tity of  the  syllables  was  strictly  marked.  From  the 
second  century  B.C.  down  to  the  fourth  century  a.d., 
Latin  possessed  merely  a  pitch  accent  or  tone,  the  place 
of  which  was  regulated  by  the  quantity  of  the  penultimate 
syllable. 

There  are  no  traces  left  to  show  that  before  the  Romance 
period  the  pitch  accent  exercised  any  influence  whatever 
on  the  sound  system  of  Latin.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
initial  stress  accent  has  profoundly  altered  the  original 
vowels  of  medial  syllables  by  strengthening  the  initial 
syllable  at  their  expense.  Still,  it  is  remarkable  that  this 
influence  is  manifest  only  in  the  short  vowels.    Not  only 


14 


LATIN    PHONETICS 


DEVELOPMENT   OF  THE   LATIN  VOWELS       15 


did  the  long  vowels,  in  spite  of  the  influence  of  the  stress 
accent,  maintain  both  their  acoustic  quality  and  length, 
but  it  was  nothing  else  than  the  struggle  between  the 
long  and  the  stressed  syllables — which  gave  rise  to  two 
opposed  rhythms — that  caused  the  initial  stress  accent  to 
disappear. 

{Note.  —  The  views  above  given  are  those  traditionally 
held  by  French  scholars.  The  Germans  maintain,  almost 
without  exception,  that  even  in  historical  times  the  stress 
accent  was  far  stronger  than  the  musical  one,  and  they 
explain  the  evidence  of  the  Roman  grammarians,  which 
is  suitable  only  to  a  musical  accent,  as  mere  thoughtless 
application  of  the  terms  used  by  Greek  scholars  when 
discussing  Greek  pitch  accent.] 


'/ 


(^ 


DEVELOPMENT   OF   THE  LATIN  VOWELS. 

Changes  due  to  Initial  Stress  Accent. 

§  8.    The  results  of  initial  stress  accentuation  may  be 
referred  to  two  main  phenomena  : — 

(1)  Change  of  the  timbre  or  acoustic  quality  of  short 

medial  vowels :  umlaut,  or  Vowel-weakening. 

(2)  The  disappearance  or  Syncope   of  short  medial 

vowels. 


^  It  has  not  yet  been  possible  to  draw  a  definite  line  of 

demarcation  between  these  two  classes  :  i.e.^  to  explain  why 

nin  one  word  the  vowel  has  disappeared,  instead  of  being 
merely  weakened,  and  vice  versa.  All  that  we  can  safely 
say  is  that  vowel-weakening  invariably  comes  into  opera- 
tion where  syncope  has  not  taken  place. 

Vowel-weakening  (umlaut). 

§  9.   The  weakening  of  short  medial  vowels  under  the 

(  I  influence  of  the  initial  stress  accent  varied,  according  as 

these  vowels  occurred  in  an  open  or  close  syllable,  i.e.^ 

'    .  A        according  as  whether  only  one  or  more  consonants  followed 

them.      We  have  therefore  to   examine  their  treatment 

separately  in  either  of  these  two  positions. 

A.   Vowel-weakening  in  an  Open  Medial  Syllable. 

§  10.    In  an  open  medial  syllable,  except  before  r  and 

•l       after  i,  all  short  vowels,  without  regard  to  their  original 

,  acoustic  quality,  passed  into  one  of  the  two  closest  short 


f 


16 


LATIN    PHONETICS 


V 


vowels  I  or  iX.     The  appearance  of  l  or  u  depended  on  the 
nature  of  the  neighbouring  sounds.      Thus  we  have : —  \ 

(1)1  before  d,  t,  n,  ^,  c; 

(2)  I  before  /  followed  by  /,   but  <i  before  I  followed 

by  any  other  vowel ; 

(3)  i  or  ti  respectively  before  the  labial  sounds  b,  p, 

/,  m ;  it  has  not  as  yet  been  possible  to  formulate 
definitely  the  laws  which  decided  on  the  choice        ^ 
of  the  one  rather  than  the  other. 

Examples. 

(1)  (a)  I  remains  :  • 

video ;  pervldeo,  evXdens,  pr5vTdus. 

clto  (I  set  in  motion) ;  exclto,  susclto. 

m?nuo ;  commlnuo,  immlnuo. 

Tlgo ;  irrlguo,  irrlguus. 

mJco ;  dimico,  emico. 

vicis,  gen.  (nom.  not  in  use) ;  invlcem. 
(6)^>l: 

sMeo ;  obsldeo,  praes?deo. 

d^i ;  reddidi,  tradldi. 

m^ius  ;  dimldius. 

steti ;  destiti,  restlti. 

stip&,  nom.  (from  *stip?ts) ;  gen.  stipltis. 

p^to  ;  compltum,  *  a  crossway.' 

t^neo ;  abstlneo,  sust/neo. 

flum^n  ;  gen.  flum^nis. 

l?go ;  sellgo,  coll?go. 

rego ;  erigo,  porr?go. 

ausp^x  (  =  ausptfcs,  from  *avi  -sp?c-s) ;  ausplicis,  gen. 
(c)  a  >  I : 

cado  ;  cecidi,  decldo,  inc?do,  succiduus. 

ltd ;  itldem. 

fateor ;  diffjfteor,  proftteor. 

sttttuo ;  restltuo,  substttuo. 

datus ;  edltus,  prddltus. 

ratus,  *  ratified  '  ;  irrltus. 

efino ;  cecini,  concino,  praecTno,  tibiclnium.  ^ 

ttgo  ;  abfgo,  translEgo,  prodlgus. 


\ 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  LATIN  VOWELS   17 

pango  (root  pag) ;  pepzgi. 
tango  (root  tag) ;  tet?gi. 
facio  ;  conftcio,  officio,  difflcilis,  aedif^cium. 
taceo  ;  conticesco,  ret^ceo. 

facetus ;  inftcetus.  ^ 

{d)  d>l: 

l^cus  (in  O.L.    stlocus   according  to   Quintilian,  Iiistit. 

Oral.  i.  4,  16) ;  ilrco,  from  *in  stl5co. 
nov^s   (which  became  nov?/s  in  the  Augustan    period 

(§  29)) ;  novltas,  from  *nov($tas. 
(e)  u>l: 

cap?/t ;  capitis. 

cornil  (stem  corn??-) ;  corn?ger. 

maniis  (stem  man?<-) ;  man?ca,  'sleeve'  or  *  handcuff.' 

(2)  Exilium  but  ex?<lans. 

fam/lia,  the  body  of  dwellers  in  one  household,  with 
special  reference  to  the  body  of  slaves  under  one 
master ;  but  famwlus. 

Sicilia,  but  Sic??lus. 

simllis,  but  simwlo. 

Compare  also — desalio,  a  compound  of  salio ;  and  sedttlo, 
*  with  real  earnestness,'  from  *se  ddlo. 

(3)  habeo  ;  adh^beo,  proh?beo. 
taberna ;  contztbernalis. 

hibet ;  quodllbet  (from  compounds  of  this  kind  a  form 
hbet  established  itself,  which  entered  into  competition 
with  the  original  form,  l«tbet,  and  finally  ousted  it). 

arc2*s,  nom.  sing. ;  arcwbus,  dat.  abl.  plural. 

nian?<s ;  man?bus,  dat.  abl.  plural. 

Compare  also : — 

intibum  and  intwbum,  *  chichory.' 

auceps,  nom. ;  auc?ipis,  gen. 

manc^ps  ;  manci^pis,  archaic  form,  and  manclpis,  classi- 
cal form  of  the  gen. 

capio  ;  rectpero  and  recwpero. 

acc^pio,  but  occi^po. 

rapio  ;  surr?pio,  but  in  Plautus  surr?/pui. 

aurifex  and  aurwfex. 

manifestus  (classical  form)  and  manwfestus  (archaic 
form). 

B 


i5 


^•^y'^f-f-r 


18  LATIN    PHONETICS 

ferrmus,  leg<mus,  but  possi'tmus,  vol?"mus. 
specimen,  but  docz^mentum. 

In  the  case  of  the  superlatives  in  -imus  and  -f^mus,  as 
optTmus  and  optr^mus,  Quintilian  tells  us  that  the  medial 
vowel  which  was  weakened  represented  a  sound  half-way 
between  t  and  u  (Instit  Orat,  i.  4,  8 :  medius  est  quidam 
u  et  i  litterae  sonus  :  non  enim  optimum  dicimus  aut 
optimum).     He  states  also  that  u  was  the  archaic  and  i 
the  classical  spelling  (/6.,  i.  7,  21) :  jam  optimus,  maxtmus, 
ut  mediam  litteram  quae  veteribus  u  fuerat  acciperent, 
Gai  primum  Caesaris  inscriptione  traditur  factum.    This 
remark  is  generally  confirmed  by  the  orthography  of  the 
inscriptions  and  the  best  manuscripts,  which  permits  us 
to  apply  it  further  to  a  certain  number  of  other  words 
belonging  to  this  third  group  (c/  e.g.y  the  genitive  man- 
cf^pis,  manczpis  ;  maniifestus,  mamfestus  mentioned  above). 
At  the  same  time  it  is  to  be  noticed  that  as  regards 
minimus  no  form  min2«mus  appears  to  be  proved,  and 
this  fact,  together  with  the  contrast  of  ferlmus,  legemus, 
with  possz^^mus,  voir^mus,  and  of  specimen  with  docwmen- 
tum,  seems  to  suggest  a  certain  influence  exercised  by 
the  vowel  of  the  first  syllable  on  the  acoustic  quality  of 
the  vowel  of  the  second  syllable.     In  other  cases,  as  in 
that  of  acclpio  )(  occwpo,  it  seems  more  probable  that 
the  vowel  of  the  syllable  which  followed  determined  the 
acoustic  quality  of  that  which  was  weakened. 

§  11.  Before  r  every  short  medial  vowel  has  the  acoustic 

value  of  ^. 

Examples. 

Norn,  cinls  ;  gen.  oin^ris  (from  *cinisi8,  *cinlris  {§  41)). 

pulvJs  ;  pulvft'is. 

Fallsci ;  FaUrii  from  *Fall8ii,  *Fahrii  (§  41). 


t 


t 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  LATIN   VOWELS      19 

legrfer ;  leg^rupa,  '  law  breaker '  (this  form  is  testified  to 
g  by  the  best  MSS.  of  Plautus,  Persa,  68). 

f^rus ;  eff^rus. 
verb^r ;  verb^ris. 
dare ;  redd^re,  tradere. 
pario ;  peperi,  rep^rio. 
Compare  further— leg^re,  numerus,  volueris  (volnus). 

^  §  12.  Lastly,  e  represents  the  weakened  vowel  after  i. 

Examples. 

pittas,  vari^as  (derived  from  pius  and  varius,  older 
forms  pi5s,  variSs,  like  novitas  from  novos  (§  10,  1,  d)). 

abietis,  arietis,  pari^tis,  genitives  from  abies,  aries,  paries 
(the  long  vowel  in  the  nominative  of  these  three  words  is 

exactly  comparable  with  that  of  pes )  ( pedis). 

B.    Vowel-iveakening  in  Closed  Medial  Syllables. 

§  13.  In  a  closed  medial  syllable  a  became  ^irrespective 
of  its  neighbouring  sounds ;  o  became  u  from  the  end  of 
the  third  century  B.C.,  except  after  w,  whether  vocal  or 
^  consonantal,  when  it  was  retained  in  writing  until  the 
commencement  of  the  Augustan  Era.^  The  other  vowels 
remained  unchanged. 

Examples. 

1.  d>?  : 
arceo ;  co^rceo,  exerceo. 
^  carpo  ;  discerpo,  exc^rpo. 

scando ;  asc^ndo,  descendo. 
tracto ;  detr^cto,  obtr^cto. 
factus ;  eff^^ctus,  ref^ctus. 
jactus ;  abj^ctus,  subj^ctus. 
fallo ;  fef^lli. 
parco ;  pep^rci. 
£nnus ;  bi^nnium. 


^1 


1  [Probably  because  of  the  confusion  entailed  by  the  collocation  uu.] 


'■?*? 


?-sp^Sv?"i«?."  'rp^^trfsr- 


20 


LATIN   PHONETICS 


^ 


barba ;  imb^rbis. 
aptus ;  int'ptus. 

O.L.  end^struos, '  industrious,'  properly  *  working  within 
one's  head,'  from  endi5,  'within,'  and  striio,  'I  build  :  c/. 
Paulus  Diaconus,  p.  75,  28  Th. :  industrium  antiqui 
dicebant  endostruom  quasi  qui,  quidquid  ageret,  intro 
strueret  et  studeret  domi.     Classical  form  ind^^strlus. 

mont-,  stem  of  mons  (with  compensatory  lengthening 

of  6  (§  25,  2)).  .  . 

prom^nturium    (this    and    not   promSntunum    is   the 

proper  spelling).  .     «       j         4^^ 

oTl.  Venos,!  Veneris  (the  form  Venos  is  found  on  two 

very  old  mirrors) ;  venr/stus. 

On  the  other  hand,  during  the  whole  Republican  period 

the  pronunciation  of  the  3rd  pers.  plur.   pros,   mdic    of 

fruor    and    sequor    was    exclusively  fruCntur,    sequSntur 

(§  29). 

3.  I,  ?,  «  remain  unchanged  : 
dtsco ;  ded/sco,  perdTsco. 
firmus  ;  inflrmus. 
s^ntio ;  constntio,  dissentio. 
s^vos ;  cons^rvos. 
{undo  ;  effrmdo,  transfiindo. 
cwrvos ;  recrtrvos. 

Effect  of  Analogy  and  Particular  Cases. 

§  14.  The  regular  action  of  these  laws  that  effected 
the  vowel  weakenings  was  frequently  crossed  by  analogy. 
Thus  for  instance,  the  compounds  com^^do,  ded^cus, 
posth'abeo,  perfacilis,  convr^co,  bif.}ris,  dispf^to,  impMicus 
illacrimor,  subnencidus,  ad()pto,  etc.,  were  remodelled 
on  the  simple  words  .Tdo,  d^^cus,  habeo,  facihs,  yoco,  foris 
(generally  in  the  plural  foxes)  pr^to,  pi^^dicus,  lacrimo, 
rancidus,  opto.  The  form  which  followed  the  natural 
law  of  sound   change   is   found   sometimes  retained  in 

1  [Properly  a  neuter  noun.] 


DEVELOPMENT  OF   THE   LATIN  VOWELS      21 

popular  speech.  Thus,  to  take  one  example,  the  written 
language  recognised  only  the  form  separo  (from  sed,  a 
prefix  denoting  separation,  and  paro,  '  I  put  on  an  equal 
footing '  ^  (§  57)),  which  was  due  to  analogy.  Certain  vulgar 
texts,  however,  exhibit  sep^^ro,  and  their  testimony  finds 
confirmation  in  the  Romance  languages,  e.g.,  Fr.  sevrer, 
'to  wean,'  *to   deprive';   separare  would  have  produced 

*  sevrer  [thus  the  Romance  languages  seem  to  postulate 
al^Tcrem  beside  al«crem;  cf.  Grandgent,  Introductwn  to 
Vulgar  Latin,  §  194]. 

In  corporis,  gen.  of  corpus,  decc^ris  of  decus,  tempc^ris 
of  tempus,  which  stand  for  *  corp^ns,  *  dec<?ris,  "^  temp^Tris, 
where  the  e  should,  according  to  rule,  have  been  main- 
tained, 0  comes  from  the  old  nominatives  *  corpus,  *  decos, 

*  temp6»s :  the  regular  vowel  has  maintained  itself  in  the 
adverb  tempm  ('at  the  right  time,'  'punctually').  This 
word  was  exempted  from  the  influence  of  analogy  by  the 
fact  that  it  did  not  fall  under  the  regular  paradigm. 

In  other  cases  the  result  of  the  laws  of  vowel-weakening 
is  obscured  by  later  changes  independent  of  the  initial 
stress  accent.  In  this  way  we  must  explain,  e.g.,  attlngo 
instead  of  *att^^ngo  )(  tango  (§16);  inswlsus  instead  of 
^ins^rlsus  )(  salsus  (§  17);  seclMo  instead  of  *seck^udo 
)(claudo  (§  22).  With  regard  to  the  last  example,  it 
should  be  noted  that  of  the  two  factors  in  the  diphthong 
au  in  claudo,  the  former  was  the  more  emphasised  ;  hence, 
the  second,  w,  instead  of  being  prolonged  was  dropped 
immediately,  or,  in  other  words,  this  u  became  con- 
sonantal (§  6,  iv.  2).  Thus  the  a  of  claudo  stood  before 
two  consonants  {vd\  and  the  compounds  of  this  verb 
consequently  take,  according  to  rule,  the  form  *-ck^udo, 

1  [For  pare  in  this  Bense  cf.  PI.  Cure,  4,  2,  20 :  eodem  hercle  vcs  pono 
et  paro  :  parissumi  estis  iibus.] 


22 


LATIN    PHONETICS 


which,  as  already  mentioned,  passed,  at  a  later  period, 
into  -clildo.    Compare  also  : — 

Crti<s(s)a  ;  accus(s)o. 

caedo  (O.L.   caido  (§  20))  ;    cecidi :    intermediate  stage 
*ceceidi  (§  19). 
\aedo  (O.L.  \aido);  illido  :  intermediate  stage  *ill<fido. 

Syncope. 

§  15.  In  contrast  with  vowel-weakening  syncope  does 
not  seem  to  have  been  brought  about  merely  by  initial 
stress  accent,  though  it  is  certain  that  this  was  the 
principal  factor  in  the  process.  The  examples  to  be  cited 
immediately  show  indeed  that  the  complete  loss  of  the 
short  medial  vowel  was  often  connected  with  the  length 
of  the  following  syllable.  But  it  is  not  sufficient  to  hold 
quantity  as  responsible  for  all  the  phenomena  of  syncope. 
There  must  have  been  other  factors  as  well,  but  in  the 
present  state  of  our  knowledge,  we  can  say  nothing 
decisive  concerning  their  character. 

Syncope  has  not  always  entailed  the  loss  of  a  syllable. 
In  fact,  in  those  words  where  syncope  took  place  in 
immediate  proximity  to  a  i  or  a  Vy  these  last  sounds 
became  vowel  sounds,  and,  unless  following  a  vowel, 
maintained  in  the  word  the  original  number  of  syllables. 

Examples. 

(a)  Syncope  is  caused  by  the  combined  action  of  the 
stress  accent,  and  the  length  of  the  following  syllable  :— 

ardere  )(  arldus. 

disciplina  )(  discipwlus. 

infra  )  ( inf^rus,  'lower'  {e.g.,  mare  inferum,  'the  lower,' 
i.e.,  *  the  Tyrrhenian  Sea'). 

supra )(  sup^rus,  'upper'  {e.g.  mare  superum,  'the 
upper,'  i.e.y  'the  Adriatic  Sea'). 

valde  )(  valldus. 


^; 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE   LATIN   VOWELS      23 

Thus  the  paradigm  of  a  word  like  calldus  was  originally  :— 

Nom.  calldus. 
Ace.  calJdum. 
Qen.  caldL 
Dat.  and  Ahl.  caldo. 

But  this  original  condition  did  not  remain  unchanged. 
On  the  one  hand  analogy  extended  the  syncopated  form 
to  the  nominative  and  accusative,  and  thus  produced  the 
duplicate  form  caldus ;  a  form  used,  according  to  Quintilian 
{Instit  Orat,  i.  6,  19),  by  the  Emperor  Augustus  in 
preference  to  calidus  which  he  considered  pedantic  and 
affected:  '  sed  Augustus  quoque  in epistulis  ad  C.  Caesarem  ^ 
scriptis  emendat  quod  is  cah'dum  dicere  quam  caldum  malit, 
non  quia  id  non  sit  Latinum,  sed  quia  sit  otiosum.'  On 
the  other  hand  analogy  restored  the  syncopated  vowel 
in  the  genitive,  dative,  and  ablative.  The  explanation 
given  above  of  caldus  holds  equally  good  for  soldus, 
*  solid,'  *  complete,'  'the  whole  sum'  (c/.  e.g.,  Horace, 
Sat  i.  2,  113: 

Quaerere  plus  prodest  et  inane  abscindere  soldo  ? 

and  ii.  5,  65  : 

Filia  Nasicae  metuentis  reddere  soldum). 
as    against    soMus;    raucus,    'hoarse,'    from    *rav(l)cus, 
derived  from  r^vis,  'hoarseness,'  etc. 

(6)  Syncope  is  caused  by  the  combined  action  of  the 
stress  accent,  and  of  a  second  factor  other  than  the 
length  of  the  following  syUable,  but  which  cannot  be 
defined  more  precisely. 

abide  from  *abj(a)cio. 
auceps  from  *av(l)ceps. 
concutio  from  *conqu(a)tio. 


[Son  of  M.  Vipsaniua  Agrippa,  grandson  of  Augustus.] 


?i:^y'p;*»^i^ 


f^ 


24  LATIN    PHONETICS 

junior  from  *juv(?)nior>*juimior. 

(for  the  contraction  of  *jiiunior  to  junior  see  §  32). 

reccidi,  reppilli,  rettiili  perfects  of  recido,  repello,  refero, 

from  *rec(?)cidi,  *rep(?)puli,  *ret(?)tuli  (tetuli  as  perfect 

of  fero  is  often  found  in  Old  Latin). 

In  the  compounds  of  jacio,  the  regular  form  according 
to  the  law  of  sound  change,  -icio,  was  replaced  from  the 
classical  period  onwards  by  the  form  -jicioy  if  not  written, 
at  least  pronounced  in  this  way,  as  the  metrical  scansion 
of  abicioj  adlcio^  conicio,  obicio,  subvio  proves ;  the 
prefix  of  these  words  is  always  long  by  position  in  lyrical 
poetry  and  in  the  classical  period.  Vergil,  for  instance, 
begins  a  hexameter  with  obirit^  Aen.,  vi.  421,  and  vii. 
480,  and  Aulus  Gellius  expressly  remarks  of  subicit  that 
the  i  of  the  root  syllable  '  vim  consonantis  capit  et  idcirco 
ea  syllaba  productius  latiusque  paulo  pronuntiata  priorem 
syllabam  brevem  esse  non  patitur,  sed  reddit  eam  positu 
longam,'  Noct.  Att.,  4,  17,  8.  This  innovation  was  due 
to  analogy :  coyijicio  for  conicio,  for  example,  was  formed 
on  a  model  like  conficio  according  to  the  formula  facio : 
conficio  =jacio :  x. 

Changes  Independent  of  Initial  Stress  Accent. 

A.  Changes  of  the  Acoustic  Quality  in  Syllables 

not  Final. 

§  16.  ^before  a  guttural  nasal  became  i. 

Examples. 

sept?ngenti  from  *sept^mcenti. 

confrhigo  from  *confr?ngo,  from  *confrrtngo  (§  14). 

supplngo  {'I  fasten  underneath,'  'I  beat'),  from 
*subp?ngo,  from  *subpango  (§  14). 

d<gnus  from  *d?gnos,  from  *d?cnos  (belonging  to  the 
root  of  de'cet) :  og  according  to  §  62. 


^         j       f. 


K^ 


«> 


^t 


^:'    '    ^. 


? 


DEVELOPMENT   OF  THE  LATIN  VOWELS      25 

Ifgnum  from  *l?gnom  (connected  with  l?go,  '  I  gather ' ; 
lignum  meant  originally  'gathered  wood.')  [The  jurist 
Gains  connected  it  with  lego,  cf.  Giles,  §  195,  but  the 
derivation  accepted  by  Walde  is  from  a  word  akin  to 
Gk.  \i.yvvs  'smoke,' '  reek.'] 

For  the  representation  of  the  guttural  nasal  by  g  in  the 
last  two  cases,  see  §  6  note  iii.,  and  §  69. 

§  17.  <9  became  o  before  /  followed  by  one  of  the  vowels 
^,  a,  Oy  u.  In  the  combination  -el-  followed  by  a  consonant, 
except  in  the  case  of  -//-,  it  passed  first  into  o  and  then 
into  u  (see  the  following  paragraph). 

Examples. 

hSlus,  O.L.  helus. 

The  verb  v^lle  from  *velse  {§  74),  root  \i\-\  vcJlo,  volebam, 
v5lam,  vSlui ;  but  velim,  v^llem,  V(?lle. 
exs?<lto  from  *exs^lto,  from  *exsalto  (§  14). 
pulsus,  perf.,  part.  pass,  from  p^llo. 

§  18.  f>,  both  original  o  and  when  substituting  <?  (§  17), 
became  u  before  /  ^consonant  (except  in  the  combina- 
tion -oil-). 

Examples. 

cwlmen  )  (  cSlumen,  a  height, 
pwlvis  )  (  pSllen. 
stwltus  )(  stolidus. 

§  19.  ei  became  t  after  the  second  century  B.C. 

Examples. 

dico  from  dcico  (deicerent  is  found  in  an  inscription  of 
the  year  186  B.C.,  the  Senatus  Consultum  de  Bacchanalibus, 
given  in  the  Appendix). 

diffidens  from  diffezdens  (found  on  an  inscription  dating 
from  the  beginning  of  the  second  century  B.C.). 

incido  from  inceido  (inceideretis  in  S.  C.  de  Bacchanalibus), 


c 


,'lti 


-£; 


ti 


> 


26 


LATIN    PHONETICS 


§  20.   ai  became  ae  from  the  beginning  of  the  second 
century  B.C.  [pronounced  like  ai-  in  *  Cairo ']. 

Examples. 

a«des,  *  temple,'  from  aides  (aide  =  a^dem  is  found  on  the 
burial  inscription,  belonging  to  the  third  century  B.C.,  of 
L.  Cornelius  Scipio,  consul  259  B.C.  ;  while  the  S.  C.  de 
Bacchanalibus  (186  B.C.)  exhibits  already  a«dem). 

qaacro  from  quazro :  qua/ratis  appears  as  an  archaic 
form  beside  a«tatem  on  the  burial  inscription  of  a  Scipio, 
dating  probably  from  130  B.C. 

In  the  low  country  round  Rome  ae  ceased  at  an  early 
period   to   be  a  diphthong.      Indeed  Varro    informs   us 
that  the  peasants  in  his  time  said  M^sius  and  ^dus  for 
Ma^sius  and  haedus  :   (de  lingua  Latina  vii.  96 :  rustici 
pappum  Mesium   non   Maesium ;   cf.  also  v.   97).      [An 
attempt  to   change  the  name   Caecilius  to  the  popular 
form  Cecilius  (like  Claudius  to  Clodius),  was  successfully 
laughed  down  by  Lucilius  :   *  Cecilius  pretor  ne  rusticu' 
fiat,'  Lindsay,  S.  H.  Gr„  §  2  note\     Under  the  Empire 
this  pronunciation  gradually  gained  ground,   and  finally 
became  general.     The  e,   arising  from  an  older  ae,  was 
open   (f),   in    contrast  with    the    original  e,   which  was 
close  (f).      Thus,  when  towards  the  end  of  the  Empire 
Latin  ceased  to  distinguish  the  quantity  of  the  vowels 
and  retained  merely  the  differences  of  acoustic  quality, 
ae  became  completely  assimilated  to  e  {i.e.,  ^),  while  on 
the  other  hand  original  e  {i.e.,  ^)  remained  always  sharply 
distinguished  from  it.     This  is  proved  by  the  Romance 
languages  in  which  ae  and  e  led  to  the  same  result, 
whereas  e  was  treated  differently  :    cf.  Lat.   qnaerit  > 
Fr.  qui^;  Lat.  hfTri  >  Fr.  hier,  as  against  Lat.  c^ra  > 
Fr.  ctre. 


4      I  f 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  LATIN  VOWELS      27 

§  21.  oi  from  the  beginning  of  the  second  century  B.C. 
passed  first  into  oe  and  then  into  u. 

Examples. 

wnus  from  oznos  (omo  =  wnum  in  the  burial  inscription 
of  L.  Cornelius  Scipio,  mentioned  above) ;  oenus  in 
Plautus,  Truculentus,  104. 

communis  from  commomis  (comoinem  in  S.  C,  de 
Bacchanalibus,  186  B.C.). 

wsus  from  oiaos ;  cf.  Martianus  Capella,^  iii.  236 :  otsus 
etiam  dicitur ;  sic  enim  veteres  usum  dixere. 

In  a  certain  number  of  words  the  spelling  oe  was 
maintained  even  long  after  the  pronunciation  was  u. 
Thus  mwrus  is  often  written  moerus  as  late  as  the 
manuscripts  of  Vergil.  Finally,  by  a  reaction  of  the 
written  language  on  the  pronunciation,  oe  was  restored 
in  pronunciation  in  cases  like  po^a  (  )  ( pwnire),  moemn 
( )  (  mwrus),  etc. 

In  the  case  of  coepi  the  oe  does  not  represent  the  Indo- 
European  diphthong  oi,  but  is  a  later  contraction  of  o  +  e  : 
coepi  from  co-^pi  (for  the  trisyllabic  scansion  ^-^  cf. 
Lucretius,  iv.  619,  si  quis  forte  manu  premere  ac  siccare 
coepit,  cf.  Monro  ad  be),  contains  the  perfect  of  a  verb 
apio,  '  to  join,'  which  seems  to  have  become  obsolete  at  an 
early  date  [hence  apiscor  and  aptus]. 

§  22.  eu  passed  into  ou  and  later  into  u  (see  §  23).  As 
the  transition  frem  eu  to  ou  took  place  before  the  commence- 
ment of  written  tradition,  Latin  itself  shows  us  no  example 
of  the  original  diphthong  eu.  But  on  the  one  hand,  com- 
parison with  the  related  languages  compels  the  conclusion 
that  the  H  of  di^co,  for  example,  goes  back  to  a  primitive 
eu  (the  intervening  grade  ou  is  guaranteed  by  the  form 

1  [(Flor.  circ.  410-427  A.D.).  The  African  scholar  who  wrote  the  Ency- 
Qlopedia  of  the  Seven  Liberal  Arts.] 


4 


# 


28  LATIN    PHONETICS 

abdowcit  found  in  a  sepulchral  inscription  belonging  to  the 
beginning  of  the  second  century  B.C.  Secondly,  the  laws 
of  vowel-weakening  entitle  us  to  trace  back  acciis(s)o,  for 
example,  to  *adc^ws(s)o  ;  which  in  its  turn  arose  regularly 
from   *adcaws(s)o,   derived    from   caus(s)a,    'a    lawsuit 

For  the  apparent  exceptions  ceu,  neu,  duphcate  torm  oi 
neve,  s^  of  sive,  and  n^wter,  the  remarks  made  on  coepi 
apply.  In  all  these  words  eu  arises  from  a  later  contraction 
of  e  +  w.  As  to  nei^ter  it  is  not  even  certain  that  this  word 
was  ever  pronounced  in  prose  in  any  other  way  than  as  a 
trisyllable,  ne-uter. 

§  23.   ou  passed  into  u  towards  the  end  of  the  third 

century  B.C. 

Examples. 

Incus,  '  grove,'  properly,  '  clearing  in  a  wood '  [c/. 
collucare,  'to  make  a  clearing,'  connected  with  luceo], 
from  lawcos,  which  is  found  in  an  old  inscription  from 

Spoletium.  , ,  j  j-     4.^ 

N tutrix,  'nurse,'  from  noutrix,  found  in  an  old  dedicatory 
inscription,  from  Nemi  [c/.,  however,  Lindsay,  .S'.  H.  L.  (?., 
p.  153]. 

§  24.  au  was  maintained  in  the  written  Latin  of 
Rome.  But  in  the  dialects  of  the  adjacent  districts, 
and  in  the  popular  language  of  the  capital  itself,  au 
passed  into  o  at  an  early  period.  This  double  treatment 
of  au  sometimes  caused  confusion,  as  in  instances 
containing  o  it  naturally  remained  doubtful  if  the  o 
represented  a  primitive  o,  or  an  au  which  had  become 
0  in  popular  speech.  Suetonius  in  his  biography  of  the 
Emperor  Vespasian,  §  22,  tells  the  following  anecdote  on 
this  point :  (Vespasianus)  Mestrium   Flt^rum  consularem, 


# 


wj 


^^ 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  LATIN  VOWELS      29 

admonitus  ab  eo  plawstra  potius  quam  plostra  dicenda, 
postero  die  Flawrum  salutavit.  In  doubtful  cases  those 
who  prided  themselves  on  correct  pronunciation,  preferred 
au,  even  at  the  risk  of  introducing  it  into  words  where 

properly  it  did  not  belong. 

In  this  way  plawdo  replaced  pl(>do,  although  the  latter 
word  contained  an  original  d,  as  is  shown  by  the  com- 
pounds complMo,  displodo,  explodo.  In  fact,  if  plaudo 
contained  an  original  au,  we  should  have  the  forms 
*  compb7do,  *  dispb7do,  *  explr^do  (§  14).  [au-  of  aufugio, 
aufero  represents  an  Indo-European  preposition  awe, 
which  was  used  in  these  compounds  before  an  initial  / 
to  avoid  confusion  with  the  compounds  of  ad,  e.g.,  affero, 
Lindsay,  S.  H.  L.  G.,  p.  129.-Umbrian  and  Faliscan  had 
0  in  place  of  Latin  au  :  so,  in  general,  the  dialects  of 
T^orthern  and  Central  Italy.     Grandgent,  §  211.] 

B.    Changes  of  Quantity  in  Syllables  not  Final. 
(a)  Lengthening  of  Short   Vowels. 
§  25.  A  short  vowel  received  compensatory  lengthening— 

(1)  In  cases  of  the  loss  of  an  s  before  voiced  consonants 

(§  86). 

Examples, 

dinosco  from  *dIsnosco. 
t'duco  from  *exduco  {x  =  cs). 
idem  from  ♦is-dem  (is +  dem). 

pono    from  *pSs(i)no ;    cf.    the    participle    positus  =  po 
(prefix)  +  situs,  perf.  part.  pass,  of  sino. 
sedecim  from  *sexdecim. 

(2)  Before  -nf-  and  -ns-,  because  in  this  combination 
the  nasal  lost  its  character  as  stop,  and  the  vibrations 


30 


LATIN   PHONETICS 


of  the  ligaments  of  the  glottis  that  caused  the  sound 
were  added  to  the  preceding  vowel  (§  87). 

Cicero,  Orator ,  48,  159  :  quid  vero  hoc  elegantius,  quod 
non  fit  natura,  sed  quodam  instituto,  mdoctus  dicimus 
brevi  prima  littera,  Znsanus  producta,  mhumanus  brevi, 
mfelix  longa  et,  ne  multis,  quibus  in  verbis  eae  primae 
litterae  sunt  quae  in  *  sapiente '  atque  '  felice,'  producte 
dicitur  m,  in  ceteris  omnibus  breviter :  itemque  c^nposuit, 
cJnsuevit,  concrepuit,  ccJnfecit :  consule  veritatem,  repre- 
hendet;  refer  ad  aures,  probabunt.  These  remarks  of 
Cicero  are  confirmed  by  the  inscriptions  which  show  at 
the  same  time  that  the  lengthening  process  in  question 
was  not  confined  to  the  i  of  the  prefix  m-  and  the  o  of 
the  prefix  con-.  In  fact,  in  the  Latin  epigraphic  records, 
every  kind  of  vowel  occurring  before  one  of  the  two  com- 
binations -nf'  and  -ns-  is  frequently  marked  as  long  by  a 
special  sign,  the  so-called  apex.  Further,  as  the  Greek 
alphabet  possessed  two  different  letters  for  e  and  e  and 
also  for  0  and  J,  the  Greek  transcription  of  Latin  words 
in  inscriptions  and  in  authors  may  also  to  some  extent 
give  us  information  as  to  the  quantity  of  vowels  before 
-nf'  or  -ns;  and  this  evidence  is  absolutely  in  favour  of 
their  having  been  long. 

Amongst  other  instances  which  might  be  cited,  a  passage 
in  Quintilian  {Instit.  Orat.^  i.  7,  29)  proves  that  the  fore- 
going are  really  cases  of  compensatory  lengthening.  He 
remarks  that  in  the  word  cdnsides  the  nasal  n  was  not 
pronounced  (.  .  .  consules  exempta  n  littera  legimus)  [just 
as  it  disappeared  in  0.  Eng.  fif  (Germ,  funf),  gos,  '  goose ' 
(Germ,  gaws),  Lindsay,  p.  11]. 

§  26.  Irrespective  of  the  lengthening  by  compensation, 
a  short  vowel  was  lengthened  in  perfect  participles  passive, 


h 


^) 


4. 


(0 


.         II    « 


DEVELOPMENT   OF  THE  LATIN  VOWELS      31 

in  the  case  of  verbs  whose  root  ended  with  a  voiced 
consonant,  and  again  in  the  verbal  and  noun  forms  derived 
from  these  participles  (§62,  1). 

Examples. 

actus,  lectus,  part,  from  ago,  l^go. 

(The  length  of  the  root  syllables  in  these  two  participles 
is  proved  by  the  testimony  of  Aulus  Gellius,  Koctes 
Atticae,  ix.  6,  and  xii.  3,  and  also  by  the  apex  in  numerous 
inscriptions). 

casus,  visus,  participles  from  cado,  video  (§  83),  but 

fact  us  (participle  of  facio). 

(If  the  a  of  factus  had  been  long,  the  compounds  would 
have  been  *confactus,-2effactus,  etc.,  instead  of  cdnfectus 
effectus,  as  is  the  case,  cf.  adactus.) 

ra^sus,  part,  of  meto  (§  83). 

(That  the  ?  in  mcssus  was  short  may  be  shown  as 
follows:  towards  the  end  of  the  first  century  B.C.,  -ss- 
following  a  long  vowel  was  simplified  into  -s- ;  conse- 
quently had  messus  contained  a  long  e,  it  would  have  at 
that  period  appeared  in  the  form  *mesus,  which  is  not 
the  case  (§  58).) 

In  the  same  way  we  have  fictito,  frequentative  of  ago 
[cf.  ambages],  protector,  as  against  factito,  s^tio. 

Exceptions  like  s^ssus,  part,  of  s^eo,  fSssus,  part,  of 
f^dio,  arose  probably  under  the  influence  of  analogy. 

(b.)  Shortening  of  Long  Vowels. 

§  27.  In  the  classical  period  every  long  vowel  that  was 
followed,  but  not  preceded  by  another  vowel,  was  shortened. 

Examples. 

f  inlo  )  ( the  infinitive  f  inire. 

pius  (in  O.L.  pius :  a  hexameter  of  Ennius  begins  with 
the  words  pectora  pia  tenet  desiderium). 

r^  gen.  of  res  (but  diei  gen.  of  dies,  glaciei  gen.  of  glacies, 
because  in  these  words  the  e  was  not  only  followed  but  also 
preceded  by  a  vowel). 


VtjfTBSF??-"- 


32  LATIN    PHONETICS 

ago  )  (  the  imperfect  flcbam. 

gruis,  gen.  of  grfis,  '  a  crane.' 

s«o  )(  sstor,  '  a  cobbler '  [sSbula,  '  an  awl  ]. 

The  classical  poets  scan  as  a  rule  iUms,  ipsTus,  unlus ; 
but    in    prose    the    accepted  pronunciation    at  least  in 
Quintilian's  time,  was  ill7us,  ip87us,  un7us  (InsM    Orat., 
i     5     18     unTus   extra   carmen    non    deprendas).      Ihe 
reasons    for    the    restoration    of   the    long    quantity    in 
these   genitives    have    not    been    sufficiently   elucidated. 
[It  has  been   suggested  that  they  may  be  due  to  the 
long  vowel  I  in  the  datives  ill?,  ips7,  un7.]    On  the  other 
hand  when  Servius,  the  commentator  on  vTergil,  informs 
us  that  in  the  perfect  of  audire  and  lenire  prose  writers 
insisted  on  aud7it,  len7it,  in  opposition  to  the  scansion 
audlit,  lenTit  of  the  poets,   the  infli^nce  '^^^^^'^jyj' 
obvious :   aud7it  and  len7it  are  formed  after  their  dupli- 
cate forms  audZvit,  len7vit,  in  which  cases  the  7  was  not 
followed  by  a  vowel,  and  hence  could  not  be  shortened. 
In  the  same  way  f7o  is  a  case  of  substitution  for    ho, 

following  f  7s,  f  7mus.  .        „     ,  i  • 

(For  a  difficult  case  of  the  shortening  of  a  long  vowel  in 
a  syllable  not  concluding  a  word  see  below,  §  55). 

a  Changes  of  Acoustic  Quality  in  Final  Syllables. 

8  28  In  cases  where  a  absolutely  terminates  a  word  it 
remains  unchanged;  compare  genera,  frigor«,  nom.  andacc. 
plur.  of  genus  and  frigus;  it«;  where  the  short  quantity 
of  final  «  is  proved  by  the  evidence  of  the  other  Indo- 
European  languages  to  be  original.  In  other  cases  final  a 
is  secondary,  i.e.,  it  comes  from  the  shortening  of  an  « 
(see  puta  below,  §31,  3).  ,  ,       i. 

With  re-ard  to  the  other  original  short  vowels  when 
absolutely  final,  they  seem  one  and  aU  to  have  taken  on 


^ 


i' 


I      V 


DEVELOPMENT    OF   THE    LATIN   VOWELS      33 

the  acoustic  quality  of  e.  Linguistic  testimony,  however, 
is  too  scanty  to  provide  positive  proof  except  in  the  case 
of «,  cf.  mar^,  nom.  and  ace.  sing.  )  (  mar?a  nom.  and  ace. 
plur. ;  len<9,  neuter  )  (  lems,  masc.  and  fern. 

§  29.  When  not  absolutely  final,  the  short  vowels  were 
treated  quite  differently.  In  the  case  of  words  of  one 
syllable  they  underwent  no  change.  In  words  of  two  or 
more  syllables  ^  and  ii  remained,  and  likewise  e,  except 
before  s,  when  it  became  ^;  d  before  two  consonants 
developed  in  the  same  way  as  in  a  medial  syllable, 
i.e.,  it  passed  into  e;  as  to  its  treatment  before  a  single 
consonant,  nothing  certain  can  be  said  in  the  absence  of 
decisive  examples.  Finally,  o  became  u  in  the  nom.  and 
ace.  sing,  of  the  2nd  declension,  in  the  nom.  and  ace. 
sing,  of  neuter  substantives  of  the  3rd  declension,  and  in 
the  3rd  pers.  plur.  indie,  of  the  present  and  perfect  of 
verbs.  This  change  of  o  goes  back  to  the  end  of  the 
third  century  B.C.,  in  words  where  o  was  not  preceded  by 
u  or  V.  After  u  and  v,  o  changed  to  u  only  after  the 
beginning  of  the  Empire. 

Examples  :  Monosyllables. 

n?x,  n?vis  ;  pfx,  pi^cis  ;  m^l,  mollis  ;  n^x,  n^cis  ;  lac,  lactis 
fax,  facis  ;   ^s,  ^ssis ;  nCx,  n^otis ;   nwx,  nwcis ;    tr«x, 
triicis. 

Dissyllabic  and  Polysyllabic  Words. 

{a)  (1)   ensis  (stem  ens?- ;  cf.  gen.  plur.  ens?-um) ;  calix, 

calicis  ;  agiUs  (stem  agiU-). 
(2)    turtwr,   -i^ris,    turtle-dove ;    magistratus,   -us    (stem 

magistratw-) ;  redwx,  redwcis. 
(6)  flum^^n,  -Inis ;  forf^x,  -?cis ;  hi?ms,  hiftuis ;  harusp^x, 

-?cis  (specie  in  O.L.);  hiU  generis  from*  generis,  gen. 

of  genus ;  ordinis  from  *ordinfe,  gen.  of  ordo ;  just 

as    in    the    genitives    attested    by  old    inscriptions 

Apoloncs  =  Apollin?s,    Cereres  =  Cererls,   Salutes  = 

SalutiS,  Veneres  =  Veneres. 


1 


"%, 


34 


LATIN    PHONETICS 

Cases    like  des^s,    -sTdis,    div.^s,    -Itis  are   merely 
apparent  exceptions.      In  fact  des^  ^^^^J'^f.^^ 
a  form  MesM-s,  and  div^  to  a  form  Miv?t-s  (§  68). 
Thus  the  ?  of  words  of  this  type  did  not,  as  m  the 
examples  just  given,  stand  originally  before  s  ;  and 
this  fact  explains  its  retention, 
(c)  auc^ps  from  *av(i)  -cap-s  (avis  +  capio). 
rerafx  from  *rem-rtg-s  (remus  +  ago), 
aurif^^x  from  *auri-frtc-s  (aurum  +  facie). 
{d)  fili?/s,  from  filieJs,  nom.  sing. 
\ivum  from  virom,  ace.  sing,  of  vir. 
donilm  from  donSm,  nom.  and  ace.  sing. 
opus  from  op3s,  nom.  and  ace.  sing, 
consentient  from   consentient,   3rd  pers.  plur.,  present 

indie,  consentio. 
dederrmt  from  dederflnt,  3rd  pers.  plur.,  perf.  mdic.  of  do. 
The    forms    fili(5s,    virom,    donom,     op5s,    co(n)senti5nt, 
deder^Jnt,  are  testified  to  partly  by  inscriptions  partly  by 
quotations  in  Latin  authors,  c/.,  for  example,  Qumtilian, 
InstiL  OraL,  i.  4,  16.     With  regard  to  words  like  biduSm, 
equ^s    viv^nt,   modern  editions  of  Caesar,   for  example, 
ought  not  to  give  the  forms  bidu^an,  equws,  vivimt.     In- 
scriptions prove  unmistakably  that  these  forms  with  u 
were  later  than  the  Republican  era  ;  thus  their  introduc- 
tion into  a  text  like  the  Bell.  Gall,  is  an  anachronism.^ 

§  30.  Long  vowels,  whether  absolutely  final  or  in  the  last 
syllable,  suffered  no  qualitative  changes.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  diphthongs  which  occurred  in  either  of  these 
positions  became  long  vowels.  Of  these  it  is  especially 
important  to  note  (i.)  that  ei,  ai,  oi  became  7 ;  and  (u.) 
that  ou  became  u. 

Examples. 

sib?,  dat.  of  the  reflexive  pron.  from  sihei. 

abis,  2nd  pers.  sing.  pres.  indie,  of  abeo  from  *abas. 

tutudi,  perf.  of  tundo,  from  *tutudat. 


I 


«/ 


>ll 


DEVELOPMENT   OF    THE    LATIN    VOWELS      35 

ros2S,  dat.  and  abl.  plur.  of  rosa,  from  *rosazs. 

•  viri,  nom.  and  voc.  plur.  of  vir,  from  *viroi. 

donJs,  dat.  and  abl.  plur.  of  donum,  from  *dono/s. 

currws,  gen.  sing,  of  currus,  from  *curro2/s. 

Sometimes  the  original  diphthong  is  attested  by  inscrip- 
tions {e.g.  sihei  appears  in  the  S.  C.  de  Bacch.),  or  by 
quotations  made  by  grammarians  (as  by  Paulus  Diaconus,^ 
p.  14,  17  Th. :  ab  oloes  dicebant  pro  ab  illis),  but  generally 

,^  speaking  its  existence  is  revealed  only  by  a  comparison 

with  the  other  Indo-Euroj^ean  languages. 

As  then  at  was  represented  by  i,  the  termination  ae  in 
the  gen.  and  dat.  sing,  and  in  the  nom.  and  voc.  plur. 
of  words  of  the  1st  declension  cannot  have  arisen  from  ai. 
As  a  matter  of  fact  it  represented  rather  an  older  at ;  cf. 
,|^  the  archaic  gen.  aulai  in  Vergil,  Aen.^  iii.  354,  auki'  medio 
libabant  pocula  Baccho,  and  again  pictcTZ,  Ae?h,  ix.  26 ; 
auraJ,  vi.  747,  aqu«7,  vii.  464,  all  gen.  sing,  [so  IphianassaJ 
in  Lucret.,  i.  84,  6 ;  Martial  ridicules  the  form  ai  as 
affected,  xi.,  90,  5 ;  attonitusque  legis  '  terrai  frugiferai,' 
see  S.  H.  L.  G.,  p.  44]. 

£>.    Changes  of  Quantity  in  Final  Syllables. 

§  31.  The  vowel  element  of  a  final  syllable  tended  to 
undergo  abbreviation  of  length.  This  is  shown  in  the 
following  cases : — 

1.    Every  short    vowel    standing    absolutely  last  was 

♦  reduced  to  a  fraction  of  the  unity  of  length,  and  accord- 
ingly showed  a  tendency  to  disappear  entirely. 

Examples. 

The  imperatives  die,  due,  fac,  fer )( cap^^,  mitt^,  tund^,  etc. 

The  duplicate  forms  ac  (§  82)  and  atqu^;  nee  (§  82)  and 

neque  (it  should  be  noted  that  ac  and  nee  were  generally 


h 


1  [But  the  pronunciation  from  the  third  century  B.C.  was  probably  u 
not  0,  cf.  Velius  Longus,  vii.  p.  48,  4k,  Hermann.] 


1  [Paulus  Diaconus,  725-797  A.D.,  a  Benedictine  monk  who  wrote  a 
summary  of  Festus'  (second  century  A.D.)  abridgment  of  Verrius  Flaccus 
(arc.  10  B.C.)  De  Verborum  Signijicatu.] 


'iSUtV^    .(Tj^jiv.  ■ 


t 


36  LATIN    PHONETICS 

used  before  a  word  that  began  with  a  consonant,  and  that 
hence  the  disappearance  of  terminal  ^  cannot  be  due  to 
elision) ;  neu  and  nev^. 
tot  from  *totl';  cf.  totidem. 

2.  Every  long  vowel  was  shortened  before  any  consonant 
other  than  s. 

Examples. 

animal,  gen.  animalis ;  calcar,  gen.  calcaris. 
lictyr,  gen.  lictoris. 

cantabam,  but  cantabas ;  punit,  but  punis ;  spem,  ace.  of 
spes. 

3.  In  cases  of  absolute  finals  of  iambic  dissyllables 
Old  Latin  poetry  could  count  every  long  vowel  as  short ; 
and  there  is  no  doubt  that  this  rule  of  scansion  reflected 
the  ordinary  pronunciation  of  the  age.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  classical  usage  admitted  the  scansion  ^^  only 
in  the  case  of  certain  words  used  to  help  out  a  phrase, 
and  so  constantly  employed  that  they  were  actually 
pronounced  less  completely  than  the  other  words  in  the 
phrase. 

Examples. 

ben^,  mal^)(  cate,  slyly,  fere. 

cit6,  mod6){  eo,  *  thither,'  retro. 

puta,  'for  instance,'  properly  'bring  into  a  line  of 
reckoning,'  imp.  of  putare;  hav?,  'hail!',  properly 
'rejoice,'  imp.  from  (h)av^re  (the  pronunciation  ave  was 
characterised  by  Quintilian  as  pedantic,  Instit.  OraL, 
i.  6,  21),  but  ama,  doce. 

quas?,  adv.  and  conj.  from  quast  (quasei  is  found  on 
several  inscriptions  of  the  second  century  B.C. ;    ei   >   i 

(§  19). 
[Cf.  also  such  scansions  as  cav^-fdcias,  vol^-scire,  as  well 

as  volwptatem,  eg^statem,  fert^ntarium,  where  the  syllable 

scanned   as  a   short  syllable  is  long,  not  by  nature,  but 

by  '  position ' ,  this  shortening  process  which  turns  an 


A: 


DEVELOPMENT   OF   THE   LATIN   VOWELS     37 

iambus  into  a  pyrrhic  in  the  Latin  dramatists  is  called 
the  law  of  the  Brevis  Brevians.  An  example  is  found 
in  Catullus  (Ixi.  77)— 

virgo  adest,  vid^n  ut  faces 
splendidas  quatiunt  comas.] 


E.    Contraction  of  Voivels. 

§  32.  When  two  adjacent  vowels  made  a  hiatus,  that 
is  to  say,  when  the  change  from  the  first  to  the  second 
was  brought  about  by  a  sharp  interrupted  movement  in 
the  utterance,  they  were  as  a  rule  contracted,  i.e.,  they 
coalesced  into  a  single  vowel  or  a  diphthong.  That  was 
the  case  in  combinations  of  the  type  i  +  i,  e-\-e,  a  +  a,  o-ho, 
u  +  u,  0  +  ?,  o+e,  etc.  When,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
transition  was  effected  by  a  light  gliding  movement  with- 
out break  of  continuity — in  other  words,  when  there  was 
no  hiatus — the  two  vowels  remained  uncontracted.  This 
was  the  treatment  of  the  combinations  i+ani/  other  vowel 
except  iy  and  u  +  aiiy  other  vowel  except  u.  However,  the 
combinations  e-{-a  and  e  +  6,  although  belonging  to  the 
former  of  the  two  categories  just  mentioned,  seem  never 
to  have  undergone  contraction. 

The  most  obvious  and  common  examples  of  this  process 
are  the  following : — 

nil  from  n?{h)tl ;  m?  from  m?(h)?. 

eH-e=e. 

nemo  from  *  n^-(h)emo  (hemo  =  homo  is  attested  by  Paul  us 
Diaconus,  p.  71,  18  Th.). 

demo  from  *  de-^mo ;  degi,  perfect  of  dego  (contracted  from 
*  de-ago  (see  below)  from  *  de-egi). 

a-\-d  =  d. 

latrina  from  la(v)atrina. 

copia  from  *  ci^-dpia  {cf,  in-6pia). 


•  I   * 


38  LATIN    PHONETICS 

coram,  adv.  and  from  Cicero's  time  preposition,  from  *  c3- 
oram  (the  second  part  of  the  compound  is  connected 
with  OS,  oris;  for  the  termination  cf.  clam  and  palam), 
[These  terminations  are  adverbial  ace.  sing.  fern,  forms,] 

ii  +  iizz  u, 

jwnior,  comparative  from  juvenis,  from  *]uumoT  (§  15&). 

e  +  a  =  €. 

dego  from  *  de-ago. 

5  +  i  =  oe. 

coetus,  a  gathering,  from  c^-Itus. 

como  from  *  co-emo ;  contio  from  *  co(v)?ntio  (§  50). 

ij  +  e  =  oe. 

coepi  from  c^-epi  (§21). 

6  +  d  =  6. 

cogo  from  *  co-ago. 

copula,  from  *  co-«i)ula  (apere  in  O.L.  meant  'to  fasten' 
(§  21). 

In  a  number  of  cases  analogy  restored  the  uncontracted 
form.  Thus  \m\\i  was  contracted  according  to  rule  to  m?, 
but  restored  later  on  the  analogy  of  tibi  and  sibi  which 
always  remained  disyllabic. 

The  same  remark  applies  to  d^i^sse  beside  d^sse,  diedmo 
)  (  d^go,  cortlesco  )  (  C(>go,  etc.  The  contrast  between  the 
present  cogo  and  the  perfect  Qoegi,  the  latter  of  which 
was  restored  by  analogy,  while  the  former  escaped  this 
influence,  may  be  due  to  the  fact  that  in  cogo  the  con- 
traction goes  back  to  a  very  old  date,  while  the  coalescence 
oi  d-\-e  into  oe  seems,  on  the  contrary,  to  be  comparatively 
recent ;  thus  the  perfect  was  more  accessible  to  the  influ- 
ence of  analogy  than  the  present.  It  should  be  added, 
however,  that  generally  speaking  the  chronology  of  the 
laws  of  Latin  contraction  is  an  exceedingly  obscure  subject, 
and  it  seems  improbable  that  it  will  ever  be  satisfactorily 
elucidated. 

Synizesis  must  not  be  confused  with  contraction.     By 


•   f   ♦ 


e 


e 


DEVELOPMENT    OF   THE   LATIN   VOWELS      39 

synizesis  is  meant  the  liberty  taken  in  prosody,  according 
to  which  two  vowels  in  juxtaposition,  although  both  pro- 
nounced, count  in  scansion  as  a  single  syllable  :  c/.  Vergil, 
Geologies  J  iv.  34  : 

Seu  lento  fuerint  alve'aria  vimine  texta. 

Aen.  vii.  190 : 

Aure'k  percussum  virga  versumque  venenis. 

Ovid,  Met,  ix.  143. 
diffudit  miseranda  suom  ;  mox  deinde  quid  autem. 

Vergil,  Aen.y  i.  131  : 

Eurum  ad  se  Zephyr  unique  vocat,  deBmc  talia  fatur ; 
but  compare,  e.g  , 

Vergil,  Georg,^  iii.  167. 
cervici  subnecte  j  dchinc,  ubi  libera  colla. 

Ablaut  or  Vowel  Gradation. 

§  33.  Besides  the  vowel  weakening  apparent  in  conHcio  )  ( 
facio  ;  exswlto  )  (  salto ;  volo  )  (  v^lim  ;  infra  )  (  inf^rus ;  r^m 
)  (  r^s,  etc.,  which,  as  we  have  already  seen,  have  their 
origin  in  the  separate  development  of  Latin,  and  conse- 
quently are  peculiar  to  this  language,  there  are  other 
vowel  changes  which  are  found  also  in  the  allied  languages, 
and  presumably  go  back  to  the  Indo-European.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  from  the  period  when  the  Indo-European 
stock  was  still  undivided,  each  of  the  three  component 
parts  of  a  word,  i.e.^  root,  suffix,  and  termination  (pp.  v,  vii) 
could  assume  diff'erent  types  of  vowel  system  to  indicate 
different  types  of  formation.  This  morphological  process, 
originally  closely  adhered  to,  is  known  under  the  name  of 
ablaut  or  vowel  gradation. 

Ablaut  is  strongly  marked  in   Greek  ;^   in  Latin  its 
influence  has  been  largely  obscured.     As  a  consequence  of 

1  [As  also  in  German  and,  to  a  less  extent,  in  English,] 


h'^^-  --"^^ 


40 


LATIN    PHONETICS 


circumstances  which  we  cannot  examine  here,  the  original 
conditions  obtaining  in  this  particular  branch  of  the  Indo- 
European  family  of  languages  have  been  so  greatly  changed 
that  the  system  of  its  vowel  gradations  has  become  un- 
recognisable. We  must  therefore  content  ourselves  with 
the  mere  enumeration  of  a  few  of  the  most  characteristic 

instances. 

Examples. 

(i.)  The  P^  grade  combined  with  the  o  grade. 

p^ndo,  '  I  weigh ' ;  pSndo,  indecl,  '  in  weight,'  abl.  of  an 
obsolete  substantive  *  pondus  -i. 
t^go ;  tSga. 
equ?,  voc. ;  equcJs,  nom. 

(ii.)  The  ^  grade  combined  w^th  the  nought  grade. 
?do,  I  eat ;  d-  ens,  tooth,  orig.  pres.  part,  of  Mo. 
est ;  s  -unt. 
ggn-  ui ;  gi-  gn— o. 
(iii.)  ^  grade  6-  grade  and  nought  grade  combined. 

O.L.  f?ido  (Class.  Lat.  fzdo  (§  19);  O.L.  fSidos  (the  abl. 
foidere  is  found  in  an  old  inscription.    Class.  Lat.  foedus) ; 
fides, 
(iv. )  The  e  grade  combined  with  the  P  grade, 
emi  perf.  ;  t^mo  pres. 
tegula;  t^go. 
(v.)  The  ? grade,  e  grade,  6  grade  and  nought  grade  are  com- 
bined in  sMeo  sedes  solium  (for  d  >  I  see  §  37)  sido  from 
*si-sd-o    (a    formation    like    gi-gn-o    above):    *sisdo    > 
*sizdo  >  sido  according  to  §§  25  and  86. 

(vi.)  The  0  grade  combined  with  the  ?  grade. 

O.L.  raajosem  (Class.  Latin  majorem) ;   maj^stas  (the  S 
grade  is  concealed  in  the  neuter  raajus,  older  *maj5s). 
O.L.  *honosem.  Class.  Lat.  honorem ;  hon^stus. 

(vii. )  The  o  grade  combined  with  the  6  grade. 
fodi  perf. ;  ffidio  pres. 
odi ;  3dium. 


1  [The  e  and  a  grades  are  known  as  High,  the  o  grade  as  Low,  the  nought 
grade  as  Weak.     The  last  was  due  to  stress  accent.] 


f. 


4r.     ^   # 


>; 


'^ 


^j 


1%    ^   % 


DEVELOPMENT    OF   THE    LATIN    VOWELS      41 

(viii. )  The  o  grade  combined  with  the  nought  grade. 

ne-  potem,  ace,  sing,  of  nepos  ('  grandson '  or  '  nephew' ) ; 
ne-pt-em.  ace.  sing,  of  neptis  ('  granddaughter '  or  *  niece '). 
genitorem ;  gene-tr-icem. 
(ix. )  The  e  grade  combined  with  the  a  grade, 
feci  ;  facio. 
semen;  satus. 
(x. )  The  0  grade  combined  with  the  a  grade. 

cos,  a  hone ;  catus,  properly  '  sharpened,'  and  so  '  sly.' 
donum;  datus. 


1.^ 


Lj'' 


<  L 


■e-TfTrys,-' 


??^*S^J^?^i^?7E5fS^ 


42 


LATIN    PHONETICS 


HISTORY  OF  THE  LATIN  CONSONANTS. 

Single  Consonants. 

Stops. 

§  34.  When  between  two  vowels,  the  Latin  stops,  more 
especially  the  breathed  stops,  underwent  but  few  changes. 
The  following  are  worthy  of  remark  : — 

Breathed  Stops. 

§  35.  From  the  end  of  the  second  century  B.C.  the  fashion 
became  prevalent  of  introducing  into  a  number  of  genuine 
Latin  words  the  aspiration  of  the  three  kinds  of  breathed 
stops.  Before  that  date  this  peculiarity  was  confined  to  loan- 
words from  Greek  (§  6,  note  iv.  4).    When  Greek  civilisation 
was  transplanted  to  Rome,  and  attracted  a  constantly- 
increasing  number  of  adherents,  certain  Roman  families 
thought  it  elegant  to  give  their  names  a  Greek  stamp  by 
adorning  them  with  aspiration.  Thus  Sempronius  altered  his 
cognomen  Graccus,  '  a  jay,'  into  GraccAus,  to  rhyme  with 
Bacchus:  we  find  on  coins  of  the  year  103  B.C.  PulcAer; 
and  again  the  names  Ce^egus,  O^o,  Tbrius  became  Ce^Aegus, 
Otko,  Ti^orius.      From  proper  names  this  habit  spread  to 
common  nouns.     Thus  instead  of  ancora,  lacrima,  pulcer, 
sepulcrum,   sul^>>ur,   etc.,    it  became   the  fashion  to   say 
ancAora,  lacArima,  pulcAer,  sepulcArum,  suljt?Aur,  etc.     We 
possess  a  body  of  instructive  evidence  on  this  practice  in 
passages  from  ancient  authors,  of  which  we  may  cite  the 
two  most  important:   Cicero,  Orator,  48,  160;  quin  ego 
ipse,  cum  scirem  ita  majores  locutos,  ut  nusquam  nisi  in 


(■ 


I 


HISTORY   OF   THE   LATIN    CONSONANTS        43 

vocali  aspiratione  uterentur,  loquebar  sic,  ut  pulcros, 
Ce^egos,  triumjt?os,  Kar^aginem  dicerem ;  aliquando,  idque 
sero,  convicio  aurium  cum  extorta  mihi  Veritas  esset,  usum 
loquendi  populo  concessi,  scientiam  mihi  reservavi. 
Orcivios  tamen  et  Ma^ones,  Ozones,  Caepiones,  sepulcra, 
coronas,  lacrimas  dicimus  quia  per  aurium  judicium  licet : 
Quintilian,  Instit.  Orat.,  i.  5,  20;  diu  deinde  servatum, 
ne  consonantibus  [veteres]  adspirarent,  ut  in  Graccis  et  in 
triumj[?is,  erupit  brevi  tempore  nimius  usus,  ut  cAoronae, 
c/ienturiones,  praecAones  adhuc  quibusdam  in  inscrip- 
tionibus  maneant,  qua  de  re  Catulli  nobile  epigramma 
est.  The  epigram  of  Catullus  referred  to  by  Quintilian  is 
No.  84,  which  begins  with  the  words  ; — 

C/iommoda  dicebat  si  quando  commoda  vellet 
dicere,  et  insidias  Arrius  /dnsidias, 

[Q/*.  also  Quintilian,  xii.  10,  27,  and  Lindsay,  S.  H,  L.  G., 
p.  16:  '  Nigidius,  a  grammarian  of  Cicero's  time,  empha- 
sised the  importance  of  accuracy  in  the  use  of  the  letter  h  : 
rusticus  fit  sermo  si  adspires  perperam  ;  St  Augustine  says 
the  dropping  of  h  was  a  sign  of  vulgarity ;  Gellius  says 
a^enum,  veAemens,  incoAare  are  archaic,  see  Grandgent, 
Introduction  to   Vulgar  Latin,  p.  106.] 

No  trace  of  this  affectation  remains  in  the  Romance 
languages ;  thus  we  may  probably  conclude  that  the 
fashion,  after  degenerating  into  a  mania,  eventually  fell 
into  complete  disuse. 

It  is  important  to  note  that  the  sound  of  Latin  cA,  ph, 
and  th  was  the  same  as  that  of  German  k,  p,  t  before 
vowels;  [i.e.,  the  aspiration  was  similar  to,  but  not  so 
strong  as,  that  heard  in  par^-Aead,  iop-hdX,  foo^Aold.] 
We  must  therefore  reject  the  pronounciations  /Itrum, 
lim/a,  sul/ur. 


»*J^Si^f£i^ 


y^ 


f> 


■:7~T<r--rT' 


44 


LATIN    PHONETICS 


Voiced  Stops. 

b. 

§  36.  b  became  a  spirant  from  the  second  half  of  the 
first  century  a.d.,  and  was  pronounced  like  the  N.  German 
w  in  words  like  Wein^  or  the  French  v  in  words  like  vin. 
This  change  first  set  in  when  b  was  in  the  middle  of  a 
word  between  two  vowels,  but  afterwards  also  when  b  was 
initial,  though  only  in  one  part  of  the  Roman  Empire. 
Hence  on  inscriptions  we  find  constant  interchanges  of  b 
and  V  (i.e.,  consonantal  w),  which  also  about  the  same  period 
had  become  a  spirant  (§  52).  Thus  we  find,  for  instance, 
incomparavilis  for  incompara^ilis ;  libertavus  for  liberta6us 
— from  liberta  ;  rene  for  ^ene,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  ^eni 
for  veni,  bixi  for  rixi,  le^are  for  lerare.  This  confusion 
increased  as  time  went  on,  so  that  in  the  fifth  century  a.d. 
a  grammarian  found  it  necessary  to  write  a  special  treatise 
entitled  '  De  b  vocali  et  v  vocali.*  This  change  is  reflected, 
too,  in  the  Romance  languages,  cf.  Fr.  ^esan^on,  from  Lat. 
Fesuntionem  ;  devoir  from  de^ere  ;  fSre  from  fa6a.^ 

d. 

§  37.  d  was  replaced  by  /  in  O.L.  c?acrima> 
Class.  Lat.  /acrima  (cf.  Paulus  Diaconus,  p.  48,  15  Th. : 
(/acrimas  pro  /acrimas  Livius  [Andronicus]  saepe  posuit), 
O.L.  c^autia,  -iorum,  hospitality  offered  to  foreign  ambas- 
sadors >  Class.  Lat.  /autia.  Paulus  Diaconus  says  that 
Livius  Andronicus  often  used  this  word  for  lautia,  p.  48, 
16  Th. ;  lautia  is  frequently  used  by  liivy,  cf.  e.g.  xxx. 
17,  14.      O.L.    c?ingua>/ingua   (Marius    Victorinus,^   vi. 

1  [See  Grandgent,  p.  134.    6  is  substituted  for  v  much  oftener  than  v  for 
b  ;  other  common  instancei  are  salium,  sertus,  solvit :  App.  Prob.  *  alveus 

non  albeus.  '1  ... 

2  [Marius  Victorinus,  a  grammarian  and  rhetorician  of  African  origin, 
floruit  circ.  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century  a. D.J 


i 


0i> 


rr 


V 


HISTORY    OF   THE    LATIN    CONSONANTS        45 

p.  9, 17k,  says  :  nos  nunc  .  .  .  /inguam  per  ^potius  quam  per 
d  [scribamus]).  In  some  of  these  cases  it  is  supposed  that 
analogy  has  been  operative,  as  in  the  case  of  o?inguavpossibly 
influenced  by  lingo,  'I  lick';  /autia  by  /autus,  '^^fty'; 
it  has  also  been  thought  that  the  substitution  of  /  for  d 
was  due  to  Sabine  influence. 

Sometimes  d  and  /  change  in  forms  which  belong  to  the 
same  root ;  e.g.,  odor,  o/ere  [perhaps  influenced  by  o/eum], 
sec^eo,  so/ium  (for  the  vowel  gradation,  see  §  33). 

§  38.  Final  d  remained  after  a  short  vowel ;  but  after  a 
long  vowel  it  disappeared  from  the  beginning  of  the  second 
century  B.C. 

Examples. 

1.  ac^prep.,  aliuc?,  neuter  of  alius;  illuo?,  neuter  of  ille ; 
sec?,  conjunction. 

2.  The  ablative  singular  of  all  five  declensions  [and  of 
ego,  tu,  sej;  the  2nd  pers.  sing,  and  3rd  pers.  sing,  and 
plur.  of  the  imperative  of  verbs. 

(a)  praeda,  abl.  sing,  of  praeda,  O.L.  praidarf. 
naerito,  earlier  nieritorf. 

aeri  (replaced  at  an  early  date  by  aere,  which,  like 
all  ablatives  in  -^  of  the  third  declension  is  really 
an  old  instrumental  case),  abl.  sing,  of  aes, 
O.L.  airirf. 

magistrate,  abl.  sing,  of  magistratus,  O.L.  magis- 
tratuc?. 

die,  abl.  sing,  of  dies,  O.L.  *diec?. 

Praidarf,  meritoo?,  airic?,  magistratuc?  are  attested 
by  old  inscriptions ;  for  the  fifth  declension  we 
have  no  evidence.  C/.,  too,  Naevius,  Bellum 
Punicum,   7  m.  : — 

Noctu  Troiac?  exibant  capitibus  opertis. 

[med,  ted,  serf,  old  forms  of  abl.  sing.  ;  for  long 
vowel,  see  Giles,  §  328,  iv.] 

(b)  dato,  2nd  and  3rd  pers.  sing,  of  the  imperative  of 

dare,  from  original  datorf. 


I 


itSitedibiiaaagiiiiiiaaiBatiftMia«Miia 


i 


46  LATIN    PHONETICS 

sunto,  3rd  pers.  plur.  imp.  from  esse,  from  original 
suntorf.  [This  -tod  seems  originally  to  have  been 
the  abl.  sing,  of  the  demonstrative  pronoun  -to- 
*  from  that,'  '  thereon,'  and  hence  abito  will 
mean  *go  away  at  once,'  or  'be  sure  you  go 
away,'  a  stronger  form  of  command  than  abi 
(see  Lindsay,  S.H.O.,  p.  103;  Giles,  §  519).] 
datod  and  suntod  are  attested  by  inscriptions. 

The  negative  hauc?  maintained  its  c?,  although  the 
preceding  diphthong  au  was  in  the  duration  of  its  pronun- 
ciation equivalent  to  a  long  vowel,  because  the  word  was 
proclitic ;  i.e.,  attracted  into  the  following  word,  so  that  its 
d  was  not  final. 

§  39.  The  pure  voiced  guttural  g  suffered  no  changes. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  labialised  voiced  guttural  which 
we  represent  by  g^\  and  which  the  Latin  orthography 
represented  by  gu^  was  replaced  by  v  whenever  it  occurred 
between  two  vowels. 

Examples. 

niris,  from  nix,  which  goes  back  to  an  original  form, 
*nig's  (§  82), )(  nin^wit,  'it  snows.' 

struyo,  written  struo  (§  47),  )(  structum,  the  supine, 
which  developed  from  *stru^''  tum  (§  82). 

It  is  important  to  note  that  g^  and  q^,  written  in 
ordinary  spelling  gu  and  qu,  must  not  be  regarded  as 
consonantal  combinations.  They  were  not  groups  formed 
of  a  guttural  stop  and  the  semi-vowel  v,  but  guttural 
stops  with  a  labial  aftersound  ;  the  latter  receiving  a  very 
much  weaker  articulation  than  the  semi-vowel  v. 

Thus  qu  standing  alone  is  not  sufficient  to  make  a 
syllable  long  by  'position'  (§  95),  as  would  be  the  case 
if  the  combination  were  regarded  as  one  of  two  independent 


f\ 


y' 


c 


'*) 


HISTORY   OF   THE    LATIN   CONSONANTS       47 

consonants:  cf.  Vergil,  Ae?2.,  ii.  15,  Instar  mentis  ^quom 
divina  Palladis  arte. 


Spirants. 

/ 

§  40. /was  not  tolerated  in  the  middle  of  words ;  for  the 
medial  /  of  the  other  Italian  dialects,  Latin  substituted 
b  or  d.  Still  there  are  a  few  cases  in  which  /  is  actually 
found  in  this  position,  cf.  e.g.,  fe/elli,  de/ero,  re/icio,  ru/us, 
scro/a,  va/er. 

The  explanation  of  these  exceptions  is  simple.  Cases 
like  those  of  fefelli,  defero,  reficio  are  to  be  explained  by 
analogical  restoration,  and  rufus,  scrofa,  vafer  are  loan- 
words from  neighbouring  dialects  adopted  into  the  language 
of  Rome.  We  find  such  loanwords  frequently  in  the 
language  of  the  people,  where  the  literary  language  main- 
tained the  genuine  Latin  form.  Thus  we  gather  from  a 
passage  in  Nonius  Marcellus,i  (p.  531,  2  m.),  that  the 
educated  Romans  pronounced  si^ilare,  while  the  people 
said  si/ilare :  si/ilare  quod  nos,  vilitatem  verbi  vitantes, 
siiilare  dicimus.  From  the  form  si/ilare  came  the 
French  word  '  siffler.'  In  the  same  way  the  Latin  writers 
call  the  truffle  tuber,  while  the  Romance  languages,  as 
the  French  word  triiffe  proves,  imply  the  existence  of  a 
duplicate  vulgar  form  ^tu/er. 


§  41.  The  breathed  dental  spirant  s,  when  beginning  a 
word,  remained  unchanged.  On  the  other  hand,  when 
occurring  between  two  vowels  in  the  middle  of  a  word,  it 

1  [Nonius  Marcellus,  a  native  of  Numidia,  floruit  circ.  323  a.d.  He  is 
the  author  of  an  encyclopaedic  work  called  De  compendiosa  doctrina. 
See  Sandy's  History/  of  Classical  Scholarship,  vol.  i.  p.  209.] 


S2 


|i 


48 


LATIN   PHONETICS 


first  became  voiced,  and  then  passed  into  r.  Instances  of 
this  process,  commonly  known  as  rhotacism,  are  very 
numerous.  Cf.  aens,  gen.  of  ae^*?;  juris,  gen.  of  ju.?;  opens, 
gen.  of  opu5 ;  feriae,  'holidays,' )  (  fe^tus  ;  heri )  ( hesternus; 
haurio,  )  (  supine  hau^tum  ;  queror,  )  (  questus  sum ;  erit, 
future,  )  (  e5t,  present ;  dirimo,  older  form  Misemo  ;  amare, 
delere,  leg^re,  audi  re,  )  (  es^e. 

We  may  compare  Varro,  de  lingua  Latina  vii.  26  :  in 
multis  verbis,  in  quo  antiqui  dicebant  5,  postea  dicunt  r  .  .  . 
foede^um,  foederum ;  plu^ima,  plurima;  meliosem,  melio7'em ; 
a^enam,  arenam  ;  Quintilian,  Instit.  Orat.  i.  4,  13  :  nam  ut 
Vale^ii  Fu^ii  in  Valerios  Fu?'iosque  venerunt,  ita  .  .  lases 
et  asa  fuerunt ;  and  again  Paulus  Diaconus,  p.  359,  1 
Th. : — s  pro  r  littera  saepe  antiqui  posuerunt,  ut  majo^ibus, 
melio^ibus,  la^ibus,  fesiis.  [Livy  expressly  remarks  that 
the  name  Furius  was  by  certain  old  writers  written  Fusius 
(iii.  4,  1).] 

We  are  enabled  to  fix  the  approximate  date  when 
rhotacism  set  in  by  means  of  two  special  passages. 
Cicero,  ad  Familiares^  ix.  21,  2,  states  that  L.  Papirius 
Cursor,  dictator  B.C.  339,  was  the  first  person  to  bear  the 
name  of  Papirius  instead  of  the  former  Papirius :  and  the 
Digests  (1,  2,  2,  36)  mention  that  Appius  Claudius  Caecus 
(Censor  in  312  B.C.,  and  Consul  in  307  B.C.  and  296  B.C.) 
changed  the  spelling  Vale^ii  and  Fu.<?ii  to  Valerii  and 
Fu?'ii.  Now,  as  we  know  that  of  all  the  words  in  any 
language  proper  names  are  the  least  accessible  to  change, 
we  cannot  go  far  wrong  in  assuming  that  rhotacism  in 
common  nouns  had  finally  set  in  somewhere  about  the  year 
350  B.C. 

The  apparent  exceptions  to  the  universal  application  of 
rhotacism  admit  of  several  explanations.  Such  compounds 
as  de^uper,  nisi,  resedo  are  evidently  restored  forms  after 


-  ^ 


y' 


O 


'?) 


I 


9 


"J 


J 


HISTORY   OF   THE   LATIN   CONSONANTS       49 

the  model  of  super,  si,   sedo.     In  other  cases  where  s 
between  two  vowels  appears  unchanged,  we  have  to  deal 
with  an  old  -ss-,  which,  after  a  long  vowel  or  diphthong, 
was  simplified  into  -s-  (§  58).     Thus  causa,  casus,  divisio 
were  written  and  pronounced  till  Cicero's  time,  and  even 
later,  caussa,  cassus,  divissio ;  cf.  Quintilian,  Instit.  Orat,  i., 
7,  20  :  quid  ?  quod  Ciceronis  temporibus  paulumque  infra 
fere  quoties  s  littera  media  vocalium  longarum  vel  subjecta 
longis  esset,  geminabatur  ?  ut  caussce,  cassus,  divissiones  : 
quomodo  et  ipsum  et  Vergilium  quoque  scripsisse  manus 
eorum  docent.     Finally  we  meet  s  between  two  vowels  in 
a  number  of  loanwords  which  found  their  way  into  Latin 
after  350  B.C.,  and  so  escaped  the  influence  of  rhotacism ; 
c/.,  e.g.,  cisium,   *a  light,  two-wheeled  carriage,'  gaesum, 
*a  heavy  iron  javelin,'  both  Celtic  words;  basis,  'founda- 
tion,' nausea,  '  sea  sickness,'  pausa,  '  stoppage,'  which  are 
of  Greek  origin;  and  asinus  which  seems  to  have  come 
from  Asia  Minor  through  some  Thracian  dialect. ^ 

§  42.  If  we  disregard  words  of  the  type  of  mil^s,  6s  a 
bone,  etc.  (for  which  see  §  56,  4),  the  law  holds  good  that 
final  s  in  Old  Latin  was  dropped  when  standing  after  a 
short  vowel,  and  when  the  following  word  began  with  a 
consonant;  cf.  Cicero,  Orator,  48,  161:  quin  etiam  quod 
jam  subrusticum  videtur,  olim  autem  politius,  eorum 
verborum  quorum  eaedem  erant  postremae  duae  litterae 
quae  sunt  in  optimus,  postremam  literam  detrahebant,  nisi 
vocalis  insequebatur.  And  in  fact  the  dental  spirant  under 
these  conditions  is  seldom  written  in  the  oldest  inscriptions. 
The  Old  Latin  poets  also  generally  treated  it  in  this 
position  as  not  affecting  the  scansion ;  thus,  for  instance, 

1  [Hehn,  Kulturpjlanzeyi  und  Ilausthiere,  p.  475,  assumes  the  derivation 
of  asinus  to  be  from  the  Hebrew  athoti.] 

D 


50 


LATIN    PHONETICS 


Eunius  writes  '  Ancu'  reliquit,'  and  Lucilius,  *  Aeserninu' 
fuit.'  When,  however,  the  following  word  began  with  a 
vowel,  a  process  of  liaison,  as  in  French,  set  in  ;  i.e,^  final 
s  was  separated  from  the  previous  word  and  connected 
with  the  initial  vowel  of  the  following  word;  this  pre- 
vented its  being  dropped  (cf.  optimos^omnium  like  French 
mauvais^esprit).  Analogy,  however,  gradually  introduced 
regularity  into  the  treatment  of  final  s  by  restoring  its 
value  in  all  cases  alike.  In  Lucretius  it  is  proved  by 
statistics  that  the  cases  in  which  the  presence  of  a  final 
s  before  a  word  beginning  with  a  consonant  makes  a 
preceding  short  vowel  long  by  position,  are  more  numerous 
than  those  in  which  it  is  neglected.  Catullus  shows  but 
one  instance  of  final  s  which  has  not  caused  a  lengthening 
by  position  before  a  word  beginning  with  a  consonant. 
This  example  is  in  Carmen,  116,  8  :  at  fixus  nostris  tu 
dab?(s)  supplicium. 

The  disappearance  of  final  s  in  Old  Latin,  of  which 
we  have  just  spoken,  explains  the  presence  of  duplicate 
forms  like  magis  and  mage,  amari^  and  amare  (thou  art 
loved).  The  old  pronunciation  was  really,  e.g.y  m&gis 
elegans,  but  magi'  saepe.  Since,  as  we  have  seen 
(§  28),  every  absolutely  final  t  became  e,  *magi  became 
mag6.  Once  this  change  had  taken  place  there  was 
naturally  no  restoration  of  final  s  possible ;  hence  the 
two  parallel  forms  magis  and  mage  survived  side  by  side ; 
similarly  with  amaris  and  amare.  Analogy,  however, 
interfered  with  the  original  conditions  ;  the  use  of  magis 
and  amaris  soon  ceased  to  be  connected  with  position 
before  a  vowel,  and  in  like  manner  the  use  of  mage 
and  amare  was  no  longer  connected  with  position  before 
a  consonant;  the  initial  letter  of  the  following  word 
ceased  to  play  any  part  in  the  choice  of  one  or  the  other 


'•> 


HISTORY   OF   THE   LATIN   CONSONANTS       51 

of  the  two  forms  [cf.  also  potis,  pote  ;  sive  =  *  sivis ;  neve 
=  *nevisj.^ 

§  43.  Sometimes  final  s  was  replaced  by  r.  Thus  the 
word  labor,  as  it  is  written  in  Classical  Latin,  took  the 
place  of  the  archaic  form  lahos  (for  the  shortening  of 
the  0  in  labOr  see  §  31,  2);  and  similarly  vapor  replaces 
vapo5  (cf.  Quintilian,  Listit.  Orat.,  i.  4,  13 :  nam  ut 
Valesii  Fusii  in  Valerios  Furiosque  venerunt,  ita  arbo5, 
labos,  vap05,  etiam  .  .  .  fuerunt). 

This  change  must  not  be  considered  as  t:ie  result  of  a 
regular  sound-development ;  the  final  r  of  the  nominative 
case  labor,  vapor,  etc.,  is  simply  the  r  of  the  oblique  cases, 
which  has  extended  its  influence  beyond  its  original  limits 
owing  to  the  analogy  of  nomina  agentis  such  as  dator, 
tonsor,  whose  r  was  Indo-European.  It  is  worth  noting, 
too,  that  although  the  nominative  honCr  is  found  on  an 
inscription  as  early  as  130  B.C.,  hono5  is  unquestionably 
the  prevailing  form  in  the  best  MSS.  of  Cicero,  Livy  and 
Horace,  and  that  Vergil  employs  exclusively  the  form  arbo^, 
and  never  arbor. 

h. 

§  44.  From  the  beginning  of  the  literary  period,  the 
breathed  guttural  spirant  h  (the  sound  in  Scotch  'loch') 
was  still  merely  a  breathed  sound  in  the  larynx,  produced 
by  the  friction  of  the  breath  against  the  borders  of  the 
vocal  chords.  Thus  the  Latin  grammarians  never  speak  of 
the  symbol  A  as  a  littera,  but  only  as  a  nota  aspirationis. 
Lightly  pronounced  when  initial,  and  almost  inaudible 
when    medial,    this    breathed   sound   fell    into  complete 

^  [In  the  greater  part  of  Italy,  and  probably  in  Dacia,  final  5  disappeared 
once  for  all  from  the  common  pronunciation  in  the  second  and  third 
centuries  A.D.,  except  in  monosyllables;  see  Grandgent,  Introduction  to 
Vulgar  Latin,  §  29.] 


52 


LATIN    PHONETICS 


disuse  in  both  positions  at  an  early  date.  We  know  that 
words  beginning  with  h  were  treated  in  prosody  in  precisely 
the  same  way  as  words  commencing  with  a  vowel ;  and 
that  medial  h  had  no  power  to  prevent  the  ihotacism  of 
5  in  *dishibeo,  'I  separate,'  which  became  diribeo  (§  41), 
nor  the  contraction  of  nihil  and  nehemo  to  nil  and  nemo 
respectively  (§  32).  In  spite  of  this,  educated  society  re- 
introduced the  aspiration  of  this  symbol  under  the  influence 
of  orthography,  and  in  classical  times  neglect  to  aspirate 
the  h  was  regarded  as  a  sign  of  bad  education  or  low  origin. 
But  as  this  was  a  purely  artificial  pronunciation,  many 
people  introduced  h  wrongly  even  into  words  where  it  did 
not  belong,  cf.  the  well-known  epigram  of  Catullus,  in 
which  the  poet  derides  a  certain  Amus  who  instead  of 
insidias  said  ^insidias  (§  35).  Under  these  circumstances 
an  uncomfortable  uncertainty  crept  in  even  into  the 
orthography,  as  in  many  cases  no  sure  criterion  was  at 
hand  for  distinguishing  the  words  which  rightly  took  the 
aspiration  from  those  where  it  was  incorrect.  Thus  it 
became  customary  to  write,  instead  of  the  correct  form 
Aanser,  'a  goose,'  the  rural  and  plebeian  form  anser.^ 

On  the  other  hand  the  customary  orthography  spelt 
umerus  as  humerus  adding  an  h  which  had  no  right  to  be 
there.  This  explains,  too,  the  inconsistencies  in  the  old 
texts,  and  consequently  also  in  the  modem  editions,  which 
hesitate  between  irpex  and  Airpex,  '  harrow ' ;  erus  and 
Aerus,  '  master ' ;  arundo  and  ^arundo,  '  reed ' ;  olus  and 
Aolus,   'vegetable,'  etc. 

It  is  therefore  not  strange  that  the  Roman  grammarians 
from  the  earliest  times  made  it  one  of  their  principal 
occupations  to  lay  down  clearly  the  correct  facts  as  to 
aspiration.     These  efforts,  for  the  most  part  futile,  may 

1  [Or  perhaps  through  analogy  of  anas  which  never  had  an  A.] 


^ 


M 


•I 


♦1 


I 

k 

\ 

f 


e 


HISTORY    OF   THE   LATIN   CONSONANTS       53 

be  compared  with  those  of  French  teachers  who  give 
themselves  much  unnecessary  trouble  in  impressing  on 
their  pupils  the  difference  between  h  aspirate  and  h  mute, 
although  h  aspirate  has  been  unknown  in  France  for  at 
least  two  centuries,  except  in  some  local  dialects  such  as 
those  of  Normandy  and  Lorraine. 

Trills  and  Divided  Consonants. 

g  45.  When  two  r's  or  two  /'s  are  in  close  proximity 
their  tendency  is  to  suffer  differentiation  ;  i.e.,  the  articula- 
tion of  one  of  the  two  sounds  is  modified,  or  actually 
suppressed  under  the  influence  of  the  other.  This  character- 
istic, known  under  the  name  of  Dissimilation,  follows  certain 
principles  which  are  analogous  to  the  other  phonetic  laws, 
but  much  more  difiicult  to  formulate.  It  seems,  therefore, 
best  to  confine  ourselves  here  to  an  enumeration  of  the 
actual  changes  attested  by  historical  evidence. 

(1)  l-l>l-r: 

The  suffix  -alls  was  replaced  by-aris,  whenever  the  word, 
to  which  it  was  attached,  already  contained  an  /,  cf. 
auxiliaris,  consularis,  lunaris,  militaris  as  against 
mortaZis,  navcaZis,  regaZis,  venaZis,  and  similarly  pulvinar 
(a  cushion  on  which  the  effigies  of  the  gods  reclined  during 
a  lectisternium)  as  against  cervicaZ  (pillow),  cubitaZ  (elbow- 
cushion).  These  substantives  are  neuters  from  adjectives 
in  -alis,  used  as  substantives  ;  for  the  loss  of  final  ^  see 
§  31,  1 ;  for  the  shortening  of  a  see  §  31,  2. 

For  the  same  reason  the  suffix  -crum  has  taken  the  place 
of  -clum  in  the  w^ords  fulcrum,  lucrum,  sepulcrum  as 
against  pericZum,  pocZum,  vincZum.  {Cf.,  too,  lavacrum, 
simulacrum.  ] 

(2)  l-l>r-l: 

Caeruleus,  'blue,'  from  *caeZuleus from  caelum  ;  Parilia, 

-ium  (the  festival  of  Pales)  from  PaZilia. 

(3)  r-r>l-r: 

Zemuria,  -iorum  (Roman  festival  held  on  9th  May  to 


»  *'  '■srr^^'i  *  ■■ 


54  LATIN    PHONETICS 

propitiate  the  dead  and  the  evil  spirits)  from  *Remuria 
according  to  Ovid,  Fasti,  v.  479  sqq. 

The  Vulgar  Latin  form  pe/egrinusforperegrinus  (c/.  the 
English  pi/grim,  and  French  p^^erin). 

F/agrare,  to  cause  a  smell  of  burning,  from  fragrare,  cf. 
French  f/airer  [which  means  at  present  *to  scent,'  but 
which  formerly  signified  '  to  spread  a  smell ']. 

(4)  r-r>»*-nil: 

crebesco,  crebui  from  crebresco,  crebrui. 

praestigiae,  'juggler's  tricks,'  connected  with  praestringo, 

'I  dazzle.' 

Vulgar  Latin  propius  and  propietas  from  proprius  and 
proprietas  {cf.  Fr.  propietaire,  a  common  mispronunciation 
for  proprietaire). 

r-r>nil-r: 

Fabaris,  an  affluent  of  the  Tiber  in  the  Sabine  territory 
(Vergil,  ^e7i.,  vii.  715),  called  by  the  Oscans  Farfarus,  Ovid, 
Met.,  xiv.  330  ;  for  the  treatment  of  Latin  b  as  against 
Oscan/see  §  40. 

Nasals. 

§  46.  The  treatment  of  final  m  is  the  only  point  which 

calls  for  remark. 

We  have  four  different  authorities  on  which  to  base  our 
conclusions  as  to  the  value  of  final  m  in  Latin  : 

(1)  The  statements  made  by  the  Latin  grammarians ; 
(2)  the  orthography  of  the  inscriptions;  (3)  metre; 
(4)  comparison  with  the  Romance  languages. 

(1)  Of  the  passages  in  grammarians  in  which  the 
definition  of  the  nature  of  final  m  is  attempted,  the 
following  three  seem  of  the  greatest  importance  for  our 
purpose  : — 

(a)  Quintilian,  Instit.  Ch-at.,  ix.  4,  40:  atqui  eadem  ilia, 
littera  (i.e.,  m)  quotiens  ultima  est  et  vocalem  verbi 
sequentis  ita  contingit,  ut  in  earn  transire  possit,  etiam 


•%        \\        *' 


^i 


*   »   ' 


1 


HISTORY    OF   THE   LATIN    CONSONANTS       55 

si  scribitur,  tamen  parum  exprimitur,  ut  multum  ille  et 
quantuvi  erat,  adeo  ut  paene  cuiusdam  novae  litterae 
sonum  reddat ;  neque  enim  eximitur,  sed  obscuratur  et 
tantum  in  hoc  aliqua  inter  duas  vocales  velut  nota  est, 
ne  ipsae  coeant. 

(&)  Velius  Longus,  vii.  p.  78,  19  k  [a  grammarian  who 
lived  in  Trajan's  time]:  cum  dico  etiaiii  nunc,  quamvis 
per    m  scribam,   nescio  quomodo  tamen  exprimere  non 

possum. 

(c)  Priscian  [about  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century 
A.D.],  ii.  p.  29,  15  k:  m  obscurum  in  extremitate  dictionum 
sonat,  ut  templum;  apertum  in  principio,  ut  magnus  ; 
mediocre  in  mediis,  ut  umbra. 

(2)  In  the  Old  Latin  inscriptions  final  m  is  very  often 
dropped.     Thus  we  read  in  the  sepulchral  inscription  in 
saturnine  verses  of  L.  Cornelius  L.  F.  Scipio,  consul  259 
B.C.,    oino   for   omom   (  =  unum);    dvonoro   for  dvonoro??i 
( =  bonorum) ;   viro  for  virow  ( =  virum) ;   aide  for  aidem 
(  =  aedem);    but  also   Luciom  =  Lucium.      This  habit  of 
dropping  final   m   was   continued   during    the    following 
centuries  on  plebeian  inscriptions,  and  indeed  became  more 
and  more  frequent,  whilst  in  the  orthography  of  the  official 
inscriptions  the  insertion  of  final  m  was  practically  never 
neglected  from  the  second  half  of  the  second  century  B.C. 
In  rare  cases  we  find  a  final  -m  replaced  by  -w  (e.g.,  salvow 
for  salvowi,  ta?^  for  tarn). 

(3)  In  poetry  if  a  word  ends  in  -im,  -em,  -am,  -om,  -urn, 
and  the  following  word  begins  with  a  vowel,  there  is 
always  elision  just  as  if  no  m  were  there ;  on  the  other 
hand,  these  syllables  are  scanned  as  long  if  the  following 
word  begins  with  a  consonant ;  cf.  Vergil,  Aen.,  ii.  101  : 
Sed  quid  ego  haec  autem  nequiqu«»"  ingrata  revolvo  ? 

4.  The  Romance  languages  show  no  trace  of  final  -m, 
except  in  a  small  number  of  stressed  monosyllables  like 


■'■a 


56 


LATIN   PHONETICS 


the  French  riew  from  Tern.  [The  Romance  languages 
point  to  a  loss  of  -m  in  all  words  but  monosyllables; 
see  Grandgent,  Introductioji  to   Vulgar  Lathi,  §  309.] 

These  different  statements  can  be  reconciled  only  by 
assuming  that  as  early  as  the  pre-literary  period  of 
Latin,  final  m  was  reduced  to  a  mere  nasalisation  of  the 
vowel  preceding  it.  As  the  Latin  alphabet,  like  the 
English,  possessed  no  special  symbol  for  the  representation 
of  nasal  vowels,  spellings  like  viro,  equo;/?,  and  salvo/i 
represented  three  different  phases  in  the  attempts  at 
denoting  nasalisation  in  writing.  This  enables  us  to 
understand  why  Velius  Longus  called  the  sound  in 
question  'undefined,'  and  also  why  Quintilian  spoke  of 
it  as  'paene  cuiusdam  novae  litterae  sonus.'  As  nasal 
vowels  preceding  a  consonant  were  always  long,  it  is 
natural  that  scansions  like 

VThem  quam  dicunt  Romaw,  Meliboee,  putavi 

represent  the  normal  treatment  in  scansion  of  the  groups 
-erriy  -am,  etc.,  before  a  word  beginning  with  a  consonant. 
And,  finally,  this  explains  the  elision  of  these  same  groups 
before  a  following  vowel ;  for,  since  the  nasalisation  was 
produced  during  the  utterance  of  the  vowei,  and  not  after- 
wards, the  poets  could  not  do  otherwise  than  put  these 
groups  on  the  same  footing,  as  regards  liability  to  elision, 
with  the  pure  mouth-vowels. 

Semi-vowelfl. 

§  47.  In  the  sound  combinations  forming  two  syllables 
i-\-  any  other  vowel  than  /,  and  w  +  any  other  vowel  than 
«,^  after  i  and  u  respectively  the  semi-vowels  j  and  v 
developed  as  transition  sounds.     These  parasitical  sounds 

1  [i+i  was  contracted  to  i  and  w+w  to  w  (§  32).] 


p.' 


^ 


(': 


• 


HISTORY   OF   THE   LATIN    CONSONANTS       57 

were  not  commonly  denoted  in  writing  at  all.  Thus  the 
written  form  was  pius,  via,  duo,  pluit,  but  the  pronuncia- 
tion was  pi-i-us,  vi-y-a,  du-iJ-o,  plu-v-it.  The  suppression 
of  V  after  u  in  the  written  language  was  actually  extended 
to  V  when  organically  correct,  as  in  words  like  flui'ere,  'to 
flow '  (which  comes  from  ^flug'ere  (§  39) ;  conflovont  ap- 
pears on  an  old  inscription);  fruror,  '  I  enjoy'  (from  ^frug^or 
(§  39) ;  these  were  written  fluere,  fruor.  But  since  the 
Latin  alphabet  did  not  distinguish  between  i  and  J,  and 
between  u  and  v  (§  6,  note  iv,  2)  the  ambiguity  of 
spellings  like  IVENTA,  'youth,'  which  might  be  read 
either  as  juventa  or  as  *iventa,  or  of  PLVIA,  'rain,' 
which  could  stand  for  either  pluvia  or  "^pluja,  caused 
toward  the  end  of  the  Republic  the  restoration  or  intro- 
duction of  the  symbol  ^^  in  the  form  V,  of  course,  in 
these  words  and  in  some  others  of  the  same  kind  as  for 
example  flunus. 

Note.  —  The  appearance  of  the  parasitic  semi-vowels  j 
and  V  after  i  and  u  followed  by  vowels  is  fovmd  also 
in  modern  French,  cf.  plier,  pronounced  pli-y-er  and 
bourard. 

§48.  j  between  two  vowels  was  pronounced  i+j.  For 
this  reason  Cicero,  in  order  to  reconcile  the  spelling  with 
the  pronunciation,  wrote  azVo,  Auax,  Ma//a,  instead  of  a^o, 
Amx,  Ma/a,  the  way  in  which  these  words  were  ordinarily 
written,  cf.  Quintilian,  Instit.  Orat.,  i.  4,  11 :  sciat  etiam 
Ciceroni  placuisse  a?7o  Ma?/amque  geminata  /  scribere,  and 
Velius  Longus,  vii.  p.  54,  16  k,  in  plerisque  Cicero  videtur 
auditu  emensus  scriptionem,  qui  et  AzVacem  et  Ma//am  per 
duo  i  scribenda  existimavit.  Forms  like  az/unt,  e/ms, 
ma/eorem,  are  found  also  in  inscriptions  and  in  a  number 
qf  our  oldest  MSS, 


■-i 


58 


LATIN    PHONETICS 


§  49.  V  occurring  between  two  vowels  whose  acoustic 
quality  was  essentially  identical  was  regularly  lost,  and 
the  two  vowels  were  contracted  {§  32). 

Examples. 

ditis,  genitive  of  dii?es,  from  diritis;  in  the  same  way 
we  have  ditior,  comparative,  and  ditissiraus,  superlative, 
from  diritior  and  diuitissimus. 

sis,  *  pray,'  from  si  ris. 

latrina,  from  laratrina. 

introrsum,  retrorsum,  dextrorsum,  from  *introt'orsum, 
*retrororsura,  *dextroi"orsum  (vorsum  is  an  archaic  form 
from  versum).  [Cf.  our  'Hawarden'  pronounced  with 
loss  of  w,  Lindsay,  S.ff.L.G.,  p.  14.] 

The  duplicate  forms  diritis,  dititior,  diiitissimus,  and 
laratrina  are  due  to  analogy.  Thus  the  genitive  dintis  is 
clearly  a  new  formation  after  the  analogy  of  the  nominative 
dires,  where  the  v  had  to  be  maintained.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  oblique  cases  ditis,  diti,  ditem,  dite  have  called 
into  existence  a  nominative  dis  along  with  dires. 

§  50.  In  the  same  way  v  was  lost  in  the  combinations 
-6vQ'  and  -ev6-  before  a  consonant,  but  with  this  restric- 
tion, that  the  second  of  the  two  vowels  did  not  stand 
in  the  final  syllable,  o  +  e  were  then  contracted  into  o, 
while  e  +  o  did  not  undergo  contraction  (cf.  §  32). 

contio  from  coientio  (corentio  is  attested  in  S.  C.  de 
Bacch.). 

nonus  from  *noi;enos;  novem  for  *noven  owes  its  -m 
to  decem. 

deorsum,  seorsum  from  *derorsom,  *sei'orsum  (for  the 
shortening  of  the  e  after  the  loss  of  r,  see  §  27). 

but 

fovea  (ditch)  and  norem,  retain  the  v,  since  in  the  former 
the  combination  -ove-  stands  not  before  a  consonant  but 
before  a  vowel,  and  in  the  latter  the  second  of  the  two 
vowels  belongs  to  the  final  syllable. 


iH 


^ 


'.^  <, 


HISTORY    OF   THE    LATIN    CONSONANTS       59 

§  5L  In  Vulgar  Latin  the  disappearance  of  v  between 
two  vowels  seems  to  have  set  in  on  a  much  larger  scale 
than  in  the  literary  language.  The  ancient  grammarians 
state  that  the  people  said  failla  for  farilla,  paor  for 
patJor,  probai  for  probavi.  The  inscriptions  preserve 
forms  like  paimentum  for  p^vimentum,  dedicait  for  dedi- 
carit.  The  Romance  languages  seem  also  to  testify  to 
the  loss  of  V  in  this  position ;  cf.  Fr.  paon  from  *  paonem  ; 
peur  from  *  paorem  ;  and  the  so-called  past  definite  tenses 
like  chantai,  prouvai,  which  presuppose  a  Latin  *cantai, 
*  probai. 

§  52.  The  semi- vowel  v  became  a  spirant  from  the  end 
of  the  second  half  of  the  first  century  a.d.  Thus  after 
this  date  we  find  the  inscriptions  hesitating  between  it 
and  b,  which  also  became  a  spirant  (§  36)  [further  instances 
from  inscriptions  are  6iginti,  b'lxit,  ^otum,  rene ;  Valeria, 
Mctor,  bos ;  bivere  for  rivere  is  very  common.  See 
Grandgent,  §  316]. 

§  53.  Some  four  centuries  later  j  in  its  turn  became  a 
spirant,  with  the  sound  dz  which  it  had  in  Old  French 
and  still  has  in  modern  Italian.  As  the  Latin  alphabet 
had  no  special  sign  to  represent  this  new  soimd,  we  find 
no  less  than  four  different  symbols  on  the  inscriptions, 
i.e.,  z,  5,  gi,  di;  cf.  forms  like  Zulia  =  /ulia;  Zanuarius  and 
G^ianuarius  =  t/Januarius  ;  /S'ustus  =  Justus ;  Giove  =  Jove  ; 
corfmx  =  co(n);ux,  found  in  Low  Latin  inscriptions  belong- 
ing to  the  beginning  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

Double  Consonants. 

§  54.  When  in  articulating  a  consonant  special  muscular 
energy  is  called  into  play,  and  the  interval  which  normally 
passes  between  the  time  when  the  organs  assume  the 
necessary  position  and  when  they  abandon  it,  is  prolonged, 


<»* 


ja 


t; 


60 


LATIN    PHONETICS 


the  ear  in  such  a  case  fancies  that  it  catches  separately 
the  noise  made  by  the  closing  and  opening  movements. 
In  this  case  we  speak  of  a  double  consonant.  In  writing, 
double  consonants  were  represented  in  Latin  from  the 
second  century  B.C.  by  a  repetition  of  the  symbol  employed 
for  a  single  consonant.  It  is,  however,  specially  to  be 
remarked  that  from  a  physiological  point  of  view  they 
do  not  denote  two  separate  sounds,  but  only  the  doubled 
time  of  articulation.  The  double  consonants  consist 
merely  of  one  single  articulation,  strengthened  and  pro- 
longed. Thus  when  the  Roman  grammarians  lay  it  down 
that  in  words  like  a56fiduos,  siccus,  currit,  fa//it,  two 
successive  movements  of  the  organs  of  speech  were 
necessary  to  the  production  of  the  consonants  s,  c,  r,  /, 
they  were  misled  by  their  imperfect  auditory  impressions 
and  by  the  customary  spelling.  This  explanation  will  enable 
us  without  any  fear  of  misunderstanding  to  continue  to 
employ  the  inexact  but  convenient-  and  generally  used 
term  double  consonant. 

A.   Doubling  of  Simple  Consonants. 

§  55.  In  a  certain  number  of  Latin  words  a  breathed 
stop  between  two  vowels,  when  it  terminated  the  initial 
syllable  and  followed  a  long  vowel,  was  doubled  with  a 
shortening  of  this  long  vowel.  "We  may  regard  it  as 
certain  that  this  doubling  was  due  in  the  first  place  to 
the  initial  stress  accent  of  pre-literary  Latin  (§  7),  but  at 
the  same  time  the  process  is  obscure,  firstly  because  it 
seems  to  be  absolutely  sporadic,  and  secondly  because 
nearly  always  the  original  form  with  the  single  consonant 
after  a  long  vowel  remained  in  use  side  by  side  with 
the  later  form  which  had  the  double  consonant  after  a 
short  vowel.    This  extremely  delicate  and  complex  question 


sil 


#•> 


HISTORY   OF   THE   LATIN    CONSONANTS       61 

will  no  doubt  have  to  wait  some  considerable  time  for 

its  solution. 

Examples. 

ciippa.,  'tub,'  'cask,'  beside  cuj^a  (the  two  variants  are 
represented  in  French  where  coupe  came  from  cuppa  and 
cuve  from  cupa. 

Ju;?;?iter  beside  Juj^iter. 

libera  ,,      libera. 

littus  ..       li^us. 


i2 


hsiCC3i 

muccus 


>> 


>> 


baca. 
mucus. 


B.   Simplification  of  Double  Consonants. 

§  56.    Every  double  consonant  was  reduced  to  a  single 
^         consonant : — 

(1)  After  a  short  vowel  of  the  initial  syllable  in  poly- 
syllabic words  in  which  the  second  syllable  was  long 
either  naturally  or  by  position. 

-     Examples. 

canalis,  derived  from  ca?i7ia,  *  reed.' 
"li  curulis,  derived  from  curms. 

disertus,  perf.  part.  pass,  of  dfssero. 
q/ella,  'a  small  cake,'  dim.  of  o/a^  ,- 
sacellus,  dim.  of  saccus. 

As  we  might  naturally  expect,  analogy  re-introduced 
double  consonants  into  a  large  number  of  words,  c/,  e.g. : 

U  gUlma,  for  *gaZina,  on  the  model  of  gidlxis. 

i?moxius  for  *i7ioxius,  on  the  model  of  mnocuos. 
serratus  for  *seratus,  on  the  model  of  serra  '  a  saw.' 

(2)  Before  a  consonant. 

Examples. 
^'  pergo    from    *perrgo,    *perr(e)go   (per  +  rego  :   for  the 

syncope,  see  §  15),  cf.  the  perfect  perrexi. 


^^'«-m^^^y:'^^''^''^jr^.^-^^.:y:r^^^^'i^?^^,--i:.T 


o 


62  LATIN    PHONETICS 

a5piro  from  *as5piro,  which  itself  stands  for  atspiro, 
adspiro  (ad  +  spiro  (§  68)). 

discindo  from  *dis5cindo  (dis  +  scindo). 

dispicio  from  *disspicio  (dis  +  specio ;  for  the  vowel- 
weakening,  see  §  10,  1,  b). 

disto  from  *di«to  (dis  +  sto). 

buL 

perrumpo,  dissimilis,  dissocio. 

New  formations  due  to  analogy:  accresco,  oppnmo, a/^raho, 
on  the  model  of  accedo,  oppngno,  attiugo.  The  spellings 
disscindo,  di^^picio,  etc.,  insisted  on  by  certain  Latin  gram- 
marians are  purely  artificial,  and  depend  not  so  much  on 
current  pronunciation  as  on  considerations  of  etymology ; 
cf.  on  this  point  Cassiodorus,^  vii.  p.  205,  18  k  sqq. : 
disspicio  verbum  ...  per  duo  8  scribendum  est,  non  per 
unum,  quoniam  ex  praepositione  et  verbo  constat  esse 
compositum,  quemadmodum  et  conspicio^  aspicio,  despicioy 
ac  per  hoc  per  duo  s  disspicio  scribi  debet,  et  ita  dividi, 
dis  et  spicio. 

(3)  After  a  consonant. 

Examples. 

corculum,  'little  heart'  (used  especially  as  a  term  of 
endearment),  from  *corcculom  ;  original  form  *cordculom 
(c/.  gen.  of  cor,  cordis)  >  *cortculoni  (§  62)  >  *corcculom 
(§  76). 

sarmentum,  'twigs,'  from  *sar??i7nentom;  the  original 
form  was  *sarpmentom,  belonging  to  the  same  root  as  the 
verbsarpere,  *  to  lop  off,'  '  prune '>  *sarbmentom  (§62)> 
*sarmnientom  (§  70). 

ar^i,  perfect  of  ardeo,  from  *ar55i,  which  itself  came  from 
*artsi,  *ardsi  (§  68). 


1  [Died  at  the  end  of  the  sixth  century  a.d.  Author  of  De  Orthographia, 
borrowed  from  the  works  of  twelve  grammarians,  beginning  with  Donatus 
and  ending  with  Priscian.  Cf.  Sandy's  Hist.  Class.  Scholarship,  vol.  i. 
p.   244.] 


\ 

1 


-),•! 


%        ' 


HISTORY   OF   THE   LATIN    CONSONANTS       63 

senji,  perfect  of  sentio,  from  *sen5si,  which  itself  came 
from  *sentsi  (§  68). 
but 
siccus,  su?/iwus,  pe55imus. 

The  double  consonant  was  restored  to  gain  etymological 
clearness  in  cases  where  the  prefix  ex-  was  connected  with 
a  word  beginning  with  s.  Thus  the  forms  exsatio,  ex^olvo, 
ex5omnis  became,  according  to  rule,  *exatio,  *exolvo, 
*exomnis;  but  since  the  simplification  of  the  double 
consonant  seemed  likely  to  obscure  the  etymological  con- 
struction of  these  words,  ex6-atio,  ex^olvo,  ex.^omnis  were 
restored,  in  spelling  at  least.  For  the  same  reason  the 
words  exculpo,  expolio,  extruo,  which  represent  the  cor- 
rect forms  (cf.  2  and  3  above),  are  commonly  replaced 
by  ex5Culpo,  ex^polio,  ex^truo.  \!   \   -t    -    c«4.  v  -  -      ->>6c 


(4y  When  final.     / 


/^ 


J 


Examples. 

es,  'thou  art,'  from  *ess  (*es-s,  2nd  pers.  sing.  pres.  indie, 
of  es-se,  like  ama-s,  2nd  pers.  sing.  pres.  indie,  of  ama-re). 

fe^,  *gall,'  from  *fe^^,  cf.  gen.  fellis. 

hoc,  nom.  ace.  sing,  neuter,  from  *hocc  (original  form 
♦hodce>*hocc)  (§  31,  1 ;  §  76). 

miles,  from  *miless,  which  itself  came  from  *milets 
(§  68). 

OS,  *  bone,'  from  *os5,  cf.  gen.  055is. 

It  is,  however,  to  be  remarked  that  even  though  the 
spelling  no  longer  exhibits  any  traces  of  final  'double 
consonants,'  we  find  a  certain  number  indicated  by  the 
usages  of  prosody.  Thus  Plautus  scans  es  as  long,  and 
miles  as  a  spondee  (miles),  and  Vergil  quite  commonly 
begins  hexameters  with  words  like  hoc  erat  (Ae?i.j  ii.  664) 
hoc  illud  (ib.  iv.  675),  hoc  opus  (ib.  vi.  129):  these  scan- 
sions testify  to  the  pronunciation  ess,  miless,  hocc.     On 


- ». 


/ 


■■*-  »  ». ,-»  ' 


64 


LATIN   PHONETICS 


the  other  hand,  it  must  be  observed  that  miles  forms  a 
trochee  as  early  as  the  time  of  Ennius,  and  Terence  never 
scans  the  last  syllable  of  words  like  ades  and  potes  as  long 
except  when  the  following  word  begins  with  a  consonant. 

These  apparently  contradictory  pieces  of  evidence  may 
perhaps  be  explained  in  the  following  way.  Originally,  final 
double  consonants  were,  as  a  rule,  simplified  only  before  a 
pause  (i.e.y  at  the  end  of  a  sentence),  and  before  a  word  which 
began  with  a  consonant ;  while  before  words  commencing 
with  a  vowel  they  remained,  as  a  rule,  unchanged.  Scan- 
sions like  esSj  miless,  hocc,  are  the  last  traces  of  this 
original  condition.  Analogy  effaced  it  by  gradually  bring- 
ing about,  in  all  cases,  the  simplification  of  the  final  double 
consonants.  Hence  came  the  scansion  mileSj  ades^  potes 
with  the  last  syllable  short. 

It  is  important  to  note  that  the  final  s  of  words  like  es, 
miles y  OS  is  in  Old  Latin  never  silent  like  the  same  letter  in 
amicus  y  civ  is j  maniis^  spes,  etc.  (§  42) ;  i.e.y  when  followed 
by  a  consonant  it  always  made  a  preceding  short  vowel 
long  by  position. 

§  57.  The  double  stops  were  simplified  after  a  long 
vowel. 

Examples. 

secubo,  from  *seccubo,  which  itself  goes  back  to  *setcubo, 
*sedcubo  (§  76). 

se^^aro,  from  *se^2?aro,  older  *setparo,  *sedparo  (§§  14  and 
76). 

§  58.  -ss-  remained  intact  in  every  case  till  the  end  of 
the  first  century  B.C.,  but  after  that  time  was  reduced  to  -s- 
when  following  a  long  vowel  or  diphthong ;  see  Quintilian, 
Inst  it.  Orat.y  i.  7,  20  (the  passage  already  quoted  in  §  41). 
Thus  the  pronunciation  of  Cicero,  and  of  Vergil  klso,  was  as 


« 


V 


f 


i 


HISTORY    OF   THE    LATIN    CONSONANTS       65 

given  below  ;  we  may  infer  this  not  merely  from  the  testi- 
mony of  Quintilian,  but  also  from  contemporary  inscrip- 
tions and  the  best  manuscripts  of  these  authors. 

classis ;  essQ ;  gessi,  perf.  of  gero  (from  *geso,  §  41) ; 
missus,  perf  part,  pass,  of  mitto  (§  83) ;  cassus  -us,  from 
♦cadtus  (§§  26  and  83)  j  divissio,  from  *dividtio  (§§  26  and  83), 
caussa. 

On  the  other  hand,  in  Quintilian's  time  the  pronuncia- 
tion was ; 

classis,  Qsst,  gessi,  missus  ;  but  casus,  divisio,  causa. 

As  regards  this  last  example,  caus^a  seems  to  have 
remained  in  use,  together  with  cau^a,  during  the  whole 
of  the  first  century  a.d.  This  seeming  anomaly  is  to  be 
explained  by  the  fact  that  we  are  dealing  with  a  term 
belonging  especially  to  legal  phraseology  which  affected 
archaisms. 

In  view  of  the  linguistic  facts  thus  stated  it  were  to  be 
wished  that  modern  editors  would  make  up  their  minds  to 
avoid  such  spellings  as  casus,  divisio,  causa  in  texts  of 
Cicero,  Caesar,  Vergil,  etc.  Cassus,  divissio,  caussa  are  the 
only  forms  that  correspond  to  the  pronunciation  of  the 
republican  era. 

§  59.  41-  was  simplified  to  -/-  ; 

(1)  After  a  long  vowel,  when  the  following  syllable 

contained  an  i. 

(2)  After  a  diphthong. 

Examples. 

(1)  mi/ia,  nom.  and  ace.  plur.  of  vollle. 
stiZicidium,  'dripping,'  )(  sti/^a,  'a  drop,'  from  *  stir-la 
(§  73),  ef.  stiria,  '  a  drop,'  or  ' an  icicle.' 
vicious,  )  ( viZZa. 
steZio,  *  spotted  lizard,'  )  (steZZa, 

£ 


66 


LATIN    PHONETICS 


The  length  of  the  root-vowel  in  mille,  villa,  stella  is 
vouched  for  by  the  evidence  of  the  Romance  languages. 

(2)  auZa,  '  a  pot,'  from  au7/a  (attested  by  the  oldest 
Plautine  MSS.)  )(  the  Vulgar  Latui  duplicate  form  olla, 
(§  24). 

cae/um,  '  chisel,'  from  *  cae//um,  from  *  caedlom  (§  71) 
belonging  to  the  root  of  caedo,  )  (  ra/Zum,  '  instrument 
for  scraping  ploughshare,'  from  *radlom  (§  71), 

§  60.  -mm-  after  a  long  vowel  or  diphthong  was  reduced 

to  -7W-. 

Examples. 

gluma,  *husk  of  corn,'  from  *glu?n??ia,  *glubma ;  glubo, 
'  I  peel '  (§  70). 

ra??ientum,  '  shavings,'  *  chips,'  from  *ra??imentom, 
*radraentom  (§  70). 

cacTTientum,  '  cement,'  from  *caemwentom,*caed;;ientom; 
caedo  (§  70). 


Kl 


COMBINATIONS    OF   CONSONANTS 


67 


COMBINATIONS  OF  CONSONANTS. 

A.  Groups  of  Two  Consonants. 

1.— Assimilation. 

§  61.  In  any  language  when  two  consonants  of  different 
acoustic  quality  come  into  contact,  there  is  a  tendency  to 
suppress,  or  at  least  modify,  the  transition  from  the  first  to 
the  second  by  an  entire  or  partial  levelling  of  their 
respective  natures.  This  linguistic  phenomenon  is  known 
under  the  name  of  assimilation.  Assimilation  can  affect 
breath  and  voice  {i.e.,  if  two  consonants,  one  breathed,  the 
other  voiced,  are  in  combination,  they  are  likely  to  become 
both  either  breathed  or  voiced).  It  affects  also  the  manner 
and  the  place  of  articulation.  It  is  progressive  or 
regressive,  according  as  to  whether  it  is  the  first  or  second 
consonant  from  which  the  process  of  levelling  proceeds,  or, 
in  other  words,  whether  the  assimilating  consonant  is  the 
first  or  the  second.  In  Latin,  regressive  assimilation  was 
much  more  common  than  progressive. 

(a).  Breath  and  Voice  Assimilation. 
Kegressive  Assimilation. 

§  62.  Every  stop  or  spirant  becomes  breathed  before  a 

breathed  stop  or  spirant,  and  voiced  before  a  voiced  stop 

or  spirant. 

Examples. 

(1)  actus  (for  the  lengthening  of  the  a,  see  §  26),  perf. 
part.  pass,  of  agro. 
scri^tus,  perf.  part.  pass,  of  scri6o. 


68  LATIN    PHONETICS 

rexi  {i.e.  recsi),  perf.  of  rego. 

nupsi,  perf.  of  nubo. 

(2)  aftduco, )  (  a^erio. 

o6do, )  (  operio. 

se^mentum,  belonging  to  the  root  of  seco. 

§  63.  In  other  cases  the  results  of  this  law  are  latent, 
i.e.y  obscured  by  further  changes.     Compare  : — 

*clau<si,  perf.  of  clauc^o,  which  became  claussi  (§  68), 
and  from  the  Augustan  period,  clausi  (§  58). 

*su6mos  superlative,  'the  highest,'  from  *supmos  {c/.  the 
comparative  suj;erior),  which  became  summus  (§  70). 

*isdem,  'the  same,'  from  *isdem,  which  became  idem 
(§  25,  1  and  §  86). 

For  further  examples  see  §§  66  sqq.  and  §  86. 

§  64.  If  in  ordinary  spelling  a  voiced  consonant  precedes 
a  breathed,  as  in  words  like  o^tineo,  su^tilis,  ple^s,  ur6s,  the 
violation  of  the  rule  is  only  apparent.  A  considerable 
mass  of  evidence  from  the  Roman  grammarians  establishes 
the  fact  that  these  words  were  always  pronounced  qptineo, 
sujotilis,  ple/)s,  uvps;  cf,  for  example,  Quintilian,  Instit. 
Oi'at.^  i.  7,  7 :  quaeri  solet  in  scribendo  praepositiones 
sonum  quem  junctae  efficiunt,  an  quern  separatae  observare 
conveniat,  ut  cum  dico  ohtinuit  (secundam  enim  b  litteram 
ratio  poscit,  aures  magis  audiunt  p).  By  ratio,  of  course, 
we  must  understand  analogy :  o6tineo,  su6tilis  were 
written  after  the  analogy  of  o6duro,  su6dolus,  and  ple6s, 
ur^s  after  the  analogy  of  their  oblique  cases  ple^is,  ple^i, 
ur^is,  ur^i,  etc. 

Progressive  Assimilation. 

§  65.  Its  operations  are  always  latent. 

Under  the  influence  of  a  preceding  trilled  or  divided 
consonant,  a  voiced  spirant  was  substituted  for  a  breathed 
spirant. 


COMBINATIONS    OF    CONSONANTS 


69 


{ 


r 


Examples. 

*fer;;e  (*to  carry'),  from  *ferse  (compare  esse,  'to  be'), 
which  became  ferre  (§  74). 

*veke  ('to  wish'),  from  *velse,  which  became  velle 
(§  74). 

*fer2e  and  *veke  are  not  attested  forms,  but  the  physio- 
logical analj'sis  of  pronunciation  proves  that  the  combina- 
tions -rs-  and  -Is-  could  not  become  -rr-  and  -U-  without  a 
previous  change  of  the  breathed  s  into  the  voiced  z, 

(b)  Assimilation  of  the  Manner  of  Articulation. 

§  66.  Assimilation  of  the  manner  of  articulation  was 
very  common  in  Latin.  Hence  we  can  give  only  a 
selection  of  the  most  characteristic  examples,  leaving  the 
student  to  multiply  the  number  in  the  course  of  his  read- 
ing. It  should  be  noted  also  that  it  is  often  impossible 
to  determine  the  constituent  elements  of  a  combination 
assimilated  from  this  point  of  view  without  the  help  of 
the  other  Indo-European  languages.  Thus  -//-  arises  from 
-dl-y  -nl-y  -rl-j  -Id;  -In-,  -Is-,  and  so  it  is  only  the  com- 
parison of  the  German  ffals  that  enables  us  to  recognise 
that  the  Latin  collum  ('  a  neck ')  is  developed  from  ^colsom.'^ 

If  one  of  the  two  consonants  in  combination  was  voiced 
and  the  other  breathed,  or  vice  versa,  the  assimilation  of 
the  manner  of  articulation  was  preceded  by  that  of  their 
acoustic  quality,  according  to  the  laws  formulated  in  §  62. 
The  double  consonant  that  resulted  from  the  assimilation 
of  the  manner  of  articulation  was  reduced  to  a  single 
consonant  in  all  the  cases  provided  for  by  the  formulae  in 
§  56  sqq.  It  should  be  added,  however,  that  apart  from 
a  few  rare  exceptions  the  double  consonant,  which  was 
simplified  after  a  short  vowel  in  polysyllabic  words  with 
a  long  second  syllable  (§  56,  i.),  was  re-established  by 
analogy. 

1  See  Giles,  §  184. 


70  LATIN    PHONETICS 

Regressive  Assimilation.  g( 

Stop  +   Spirant. 

§  67.  In  combinations  formed  of  a  labial,  dental  or 
guttural  stop  followed  by  /,  the  stop  is  changed  to  /. 
Thus  here  the  assimilation  of  the  manner  is  combined 
with  that  of  the  place  of  articulation ;  the  three  kinds  ^; 
of  stops  not  being  replaced  by  corresponding  spirants  but 
changing  all  to  /. 

Practically  there  are  no  examples   save  for  the  group 

'Pf'^  -df-.  -C/-- 

_^f->  ^.^f.   I  >/f. 

Examples. 

q/Bcina  (a  workshop)  from  o^(i)ficina  (opificina  is  found 
in  Plaiitus  Miles,  880) ;  compare  also  opifex. 

o/fero  from  *  opiero. 

a/fero  from  arffero,  the  intermediate  stage  being  *atfero. 

e/fero  from  ecfero  (ecferet  is  found  in  Plautus  Aulularia,         ^ 
664,    ecfari    in    a  quotation   from  Ennius    in  Cicero,   De 
LegibuSi  iii.  9 ;  the  triple  form  of  the  preposition  e-,  ec-, 
ex-  corresponds  exactly  with  a-,  ab-,  abs-). 

Restorations  due  to  analogy :  o^fero,  ac?fero,  o^fundo, 
ac?figo,  which  are  duplicate  forms  of  o/fero,  a/fero, 
o/Yundo,  a/figo.  0/fundo  and  a/figo  in  their  turn  are  i^ 
re-established  by  analogy  of  o/fero,  a/fero,  and  other 
words  of  the  same  type.  The  only  regular  forms  are 
*ofundo,  *afigo  (§  56,  i.).  The  pronunciation  of  obfero, 
adfero,  obfundo,  adfigo  was,  of  course,  o/>fero,  a/fero, 
qpfundo,  a^go ;  the  spellings  obfero,  adfero,  obfundo, 
adfigo    correspond    precisely  with   obtineo,   subtilis,   etc.       ^ 

(§  w). 


V 


I 


!    • 


*•  « 


COMBINATIONS    OF    CONSONANTS 


71 


§  68.    A  combination  of  a  dental  stop  followed  by  5 
became  ss. 


ds 


>  tsf 


>  ss 


Examples. 


concu5si,  perfect  of  concu^io,  from  *  concufsi. 
messui,  perfect  of  me^o,  from  *  me^sui. 
assequor,  from  arfsequor,  the  intermediate  stage  being 
*  assequor. 

assum,  from  *  a^sum,  from  ac?sum. 

Double  -ss-  was  reduced  to  single  -s- : — 

(1)  After  a  short  vowel  in  the  first  syllable  of  poly- 
syllabic words  where  the  second  syllable  was  long  naturally 
or  by  position  (§  56  (1)). 

There  are  no  examples  ;  analogy  everywhere  introduced 
the  double  -ss-  and  effaced  the  results  of  this  law  (see 
below). 

(2)  In  a  final  position  (§  56  (1)). 

Examples. 

miles  from  *  mile^s  (compare  gen.  milids  from  *  miletis 
(§  10,  i.,  b)),  miless. 

pes  from  *perfs  (compare  gen.  perfis),  *pe^s,  *pess.  (For 
the  long  vowel  of  the  nom.  pes,  see  §  12.) 

(3)  After  a  long  vowel  or  diphthong,  from  the  end  of 
the  first  century  B.C.  (§  58). 

Examples. 

lusi,  perfect  of  \udo,  from  *lurfsi,  *luts\,  Imsi. 
plausi,    perfect    of    plaudo,     from     *plaurfsi,     *plaufsi, 
plauasi. 

Restorations  due  to  analogy  :  a^fsequor,  ac?sum,  duplicate 
forms  of  assequor,  assum;  a^^fsigno,  assisto  which  have 
supplanted  the  regular  forms  *asigno,  *asisto  ((1)  above), 


-4irt 


i 


i 


72 


LATIN    PHONETICS 


Stop  +  Nasal. 


COMBINATIONS    OF    CONSONANTS 


73 


§  69.  Under  the  action  of  a  following  n,  each  kind  of 
stop  was  changed  into  the  nasal  produced  by  the  same 
organ.     Thus  : — 

'bn-  >  -mn- 

-pn-  >  -7nn-  passing  through  -^n- 

-dn-  >  -nn- 

-tii'  >  -7in-  passing  through  -dn- 

-gn-  >  -hn- 

-cn-  >  -fin-  passing  through  -^n- 

EXAMPLES. 

sca??mum  (*  a  stool,'  '  a  bench ')  from  *sca5nom  (compare 
the  diminutive  scaJellum). 

Sawnium  (the  district  in  Central  Italy  whose  inhabitants 
were  descended  from  the  Sabines)  from  *Sa6niom  (which 
belongs  to  the  same  root  as  SaMni,  Sa6elli,  'the  Sabines'). 

somnus  from  *sopnos  {cf.  so/>or,  'deep  sleep'),  by  an 
intermediate  stage  *so6nos. 

annoto  from  arfnoto. 

penna  from  *petna  (which  belongs  to  the  root  of  peto, 
'  I  direct  myself  towards,'  the  oldest  meaning  of  which 
was  '  I  fly '),  through  an  intermediate  stage  *pe6?na. 

As  for  the  group  -g?i-j  representing  partly  an  older  -cn- 
(cf,  §  62),  writing  has  not  been  able  to  reproduce  its 
development  into  -hn-,  because,  as  we  have  seen  (§  6, 
note  3),  the  Romans  did  not  possess  a  special  letter  to 
denote  the  nasal  guttural.  Thus  they  continued  to  write 
-gn-  while  pronouncing  -hn-. 

Compare : — 

linnum,  written  lignum,  '  firewood ' ;  primitive  form 
*le^num  (§  16). 

dinnus,  written  dignus ;  primitive  form  *decnos  (§§  16, 
62)  ;  intermediate  stage  *de5'nos. 


>      I 


♦  ^''  : 


The  proof  that  in  lignum  and  dignus  -gn-  was  pro- 
nounced -nn-  is  provided  by  the  radical  t  of  these  words, 
which  comes  from  an  original  e,  the  change  of  ^  to  ^  in 
a  closed  syllable  being  the  rule  before  a  nasal  guttural 
(§  16). 

Restorations  due  to  analogy  :  a6nuo,  a^nego,  which 
have  almost  entirely  ousted  the  regular  forms  amnuo, 
a??inego ;  adwoto,  a  duplicate  form  of  awnoto ;  awnecto, 
awnitor  for  *anecto,  *anitor  (§  56  (1)). 

§  70.  Omitting  the  combination  guttural  stop  +  m,  the 
treatment  of  which  has  not  yet  been  established,  all 
the  stops  followed  by  m  became  m.  This  development 
presupposes  the  earlier  change  of  d  and  t  to  b  and  p  in 
consequence  of  an  assimilation  of  the  place  of  articulation. 
(§  78).     Hence  :— 


-bm-  \ 
-dm-  >  -bm-  ) 

-pm  I 
-tm-  >  -pm-  J 


>  -mm- 


> 


-mn-  passing  through  -bm- 


For  -tm-,  it  is  true,  we  have  no  examples,  but  it  is 
beyond  doubt  that  this  combination  developed  in  the 
way  indicated  wherever  it  presented  itself 

Examples. 

awimoveo  from  ac^moveo. 

su7;inius  from  *su&mos  from  *su;?mos  (§§  62,  63). 

Double  -mm-  was  simplified  later  to  -m-  (§§  56  (1),  60) 
after  a  short  vowel  in  the  initial  syllable  in  polysyllabic 
words   whose    second  syllable    was    long    by   nature   or 


■^-'^  '•?^'^- 


0 


74 


LATIN    PHONETICS 


COMBINATIONS    OF    CONSONANTS 


75 


position,  and  in  all  words  where  it  followed  a  long  vowel 

or  diphthong. 

Examples. 

omitto  from  *oj5mitto  {op  being  the  original  form  of  the 
preposition  ob;  §  62  (2)),  *o6mitto,  *owmitto. 

gluraa  ('husk  ')  from  *glufema,  *glu?72ma  (glu&o,  'peel'). 

caementum  ('hewn  stone')  from  *caerfmentom,  *caem- 
mentom  (caec?o,  '  break '). 

Restorations  due  to  analogy :  a(7moveo,  duplicate  form 
of  a?72moveo  (see  above);  su^mitto,  duplicate  form  of 
suwmitto,  which  is  itself  of  analogical  origin,  the  correct 
form  being  *sumitto  (compare  omitto  above). 

Stop  +  Divided  Consonant. 

§  71.  The  voiced  dental  stop  d  followed  by  the  divided 
consonant  /  is  assimilated  to  it. 

-d\-  >  -II- 

EXAMPLES. 

aZloquor  from  ac^loquor. 
graZlae  ('stilts')  from  *gra££lae  (gradior). 
radium  (instrument  for  scraping  earth  off  a  ploughshare) 
from  *rac?lom  (rarfo). 
se/la  from  *sed\a.  (sec?eo). 

After  a  diphthong  double  -//-  is  simplified  (§  59  (2)). 

Example. 

caelum  (a  sculptor's  chisel)  from  *c&Gd\om.  >  *caeflura 
(caedo). 

Restorations  due  to  analogy  :  ac^loquor,  duplicate  form 
of  aZloquor;  a</latus,  perf.  part.  pass,  of  adfero,  afFero 
(§  67),  duplicate  form  of  a/latus,  which  in  its  turn  analogy 
substituted  for  *  alatus  (§  56  (1)). 


♦  '4 


' 


^ 


0 


^A 


Nasal  +  Trilled  or  Divided  Consonant. 

§  72.  Nasal  w  is  assimilated  to  a  following  trilled  or 
divided  consonant. 

-nr-  >  -rr- 
-n\-  >  -II 

Examples. 

(i.)  corripio,  from  *co7irapio  (with  umlaut,  §  10,  i.  c). 
irrevocabilis,  from  inrevocabilis. 
(ii.)  colloquium,  from  conloquium. 

vi^um  ('  a  sup  of  wine  '),  from  *vin(o)lum  (diminutive  of 
vinum  with  syncope,  §  15). 

Restorations  due  to  analogy :  iwrevocabilis,  conloquium, 
duplicate  forms  of  i?Tevocabilis,  co/loquium  (see  above) ; 
corrumpo,  i//atus  (perf.  part.  pass,  of  infero),  which  have 
replaced  the  regular  forms  corumpo  and  "'^ilatus  (§  56  (1)). 
Of  corumpo  there  remains  a  last  trace  in  Lucretius,  vi., 
1135: 

An  coelum  nobis   ultro   natura  c5ruptum. 

Trilled  +  Divided  Consonant. 

§  73.  A  trilled  followed  by  a  divided  consonant  is  changed 
by  the  latter  into  a  divided  consonant. 

-r\-  >  -II- 
Examples. 

ageHus,  from  *agerlos  (diminutive  of  ager). 
peZlicio,  from  *perlacio  (with  umlaut,  §  10,  i.  c). 
satuZlus  ('satisfied')  from  *saturlos  (derived  from  satur). 

Restorations  due  to  analogy  :  perlioio,  duplicate  form  of 
pe/licio  (see  above),  perluceo,  duplicate  form  of  pe/luceo, 
which  is  itself  substituted  by  analogy  for  *peluceo  (§  56  (1)). 


i^^^&f?*!  ■■J'^i^^^^^^f^^^'t'^riA^^^^f^^^^^^W^f^^^^'. 


76  LATIN    PHONETICS 


Progressive  Assimilation. 

Trilled  or  Divided  Consonant  +  Spirant. 

§  74.  A  trilled  or  divided  consonant  assimilates  a  follow- 
ing *  after  having  first  changed  it  into  z  (§  65). 

-Ts-  >  -rr- 
-Is-  >  -1/- 

EXAMPLKS. 

ferre  from  *fer2e,  from  *ferse  (compare  esse). 

velle  from  *vehe  from  *vel5e. 

To  the  same  category  belong  words  like  col/um,  torreo, 
verres  which  come  from  *colsum,  *torseo,  *  verses.  These 
original  forms,  however,  are  proved  only  by  a  comparison 
with  the  other  Indo-European  languages  (§  66). 

To  this  rule  there  are  exceptions,  e.^.,  words  which  show 
the  combinations  -rs-  and  -Is-  without  assimilation.  Com- 
pare for  example  arsi,  farsi,  mubi,  the  perfects  of  ardeo, 
farcio,  mulceo  ;  pulsus,  perf.  part.  pass,  of  pello.  Of  course 
this  different  treatment  of  the  same  combinations  of 
consonants  only  apparently  violates  the  principle  of  the 
constancy  of  phonetic  laws.  The  formulae  of  these  laws, 
in  fact,  apply  only  to  sounds  or  combinations  of  sounds  of 
perfectly  identical  nature.  Now  in  arsi,  the  combination 
-rs-  comes  from  -rss-  (§  89) ;  farsi  and  mulsi  stand  for 
*farcsi,  'mulcsi  (§  90),  and  the  simplification  of  the  com- 
binations -res  and  -Ics-  to  -rs-  and  -Is-  came  only  after  the 
assimilation  of  original  -rs-  and  -Is-  to  -rr-  and  -//-.  Finally, 
pulsus  is  an  analogical  creation  that  has  replaced  the 
regular  form  *pultus.  Of  this  there  remains  a  last  trace 
in  the  verb  pultare  ('  strike ')  used  by  Plautus,  Captivij  832, 
cf.  also  Quintilian,  Instit.  Orat.,  i.  4,  14:  nam  inertare  ei 
pultare  dicebant.     Pulsus  was  substituted  for  *pultus  at  a 


COMBINATIONS    OF   CONSONANTS 


77 


#      ^ 


^ 


time  when  the  assimilation  of  original  -rs-  and  -Is-  was 
(.        equally  an  accomplished  fact.     None  of  these  forms  thus 
corresponds  exactly  with  *ferse  or  *velse. 

(c.)  Assimilation  of  the  Place  of  Articulation. 

§  75.  Assimilation  of  the  place  of  articulation  was  always 

C       regressive.    All  the  remarks  made  above  (§  66)  with  regard 

to  the  assimilation  of  the  manner  of  articulation  are  true  of 

this  process  also.    The  student  must  therefore  refer  to  them 

before  beginning  to  study  the  following  laws. 

Assimilation  between  Stops. 

§  76.  Before  a  guttural  stop  every  dental  or  labial  stop 
is  changed  into  a  guttural  stop;  dental  stops  are  also 
assimilated  to  a  following  labial  stop.  The  following  table 
summarises  these  changes  : — 


•-^i^  % 


(1) 


-tg-  >  -dg 

-hg 
.pg.  >  -hg 


>  -gg- 


-do-  >  'tc- 

-pc- 

-hc    >-pc- 


'  >  -cc- 


-dci' 


(2) 


-pq- .  i 
-dq^-  >  -pq  ') 

-dbA 
-th'  >  -dh-J 

■dp-  >  -tp'J 


>  *-q*  q^-,  which  became  -cq^  -  (§  82). 


>  -6b- 


>  -pv- 


> 


78 


LATIN    PHONETICS 


Some  of  the  instances  of  assimilation  shown  in  this 
table  rest,  it  is  true,  only  on  analogical  induction,  as 
there  are  no  examples.  The  following  are  attested  his- 
torically : — 

aggero,  from  ac?gero. 

oggevo,  from  'opgero,  o6gero. 

siccus,  from  *sii(i)cos  (which  belongs  to  the  same  root  as 
sids). 

succido,  from  *suj5cado  (with  umlaut,  §  10,  i.  c). 

quicquam,  from  qui(;?quam,  *qui^quam. 

ocquinisco  ('stoop'),  from  *o;?quinisco  (compare  con- 
quinisco  ;  the  simple  verb  is  not  used). 

quijope,from  *quifl?pe  (quid,  neuter  of  quis  -f-  pe,  a  particle 
found  also  in  nempe),  *qui^pe. 

A  double  guttural  (i.e.,  -cc-,  -pp-,  etc.)  was  simplified 
in  a  final  position  (^  56  (4)),  and  in  a  medial  syllable  after 
a  long  vowel  (§  57). 

Examples. 

hoc,  from  *hof?ce  (*hod,  neuter,  like  id,  +  ce,  a  demon- 
strative particle ;  old  inscriptions  have  honce  =  hunc, 
hance  =  hanc,  etc. ),  *hotce  *hocce,  and  with  the  loss  of  the 
final  vowel  (§  31  (1)),  hocc.     (On  this  form,  see  §  56  (4)). 

secubo  (*  I  lie  alone  or  apart '),  from  *sec?cubo  (the  prefix 
sed  denoting  separation,  c/.  seditio),  *se^cubo,  *seccubo 
(§  57). 

separo,  from  se^Zparo,  *se^paro,  *se^paro  (§  57). 

Restorations  due  to  analogy:  ac?gero,  obgero,  qmd- 
quam,  duplicate  forms  of  a^gero,  o^gero,  quicquam ; 
ac?bibo,  which  has  ousted  *Miho  doubtless  owing  to  the 
latter's  ambiguity ;  iccirco  for  "^icirco  (§  56  (1)),  arising 
from  ic^circo,  which  was  re-established  and  existed  as  a 
duplicate  form  along  with  iccirco. 


#  Ji 


f) 


\ 


« 


COMBINATIONS    OF    CONSONANTS 


79 


Assimilation  between  a  Stop  and  a  Spirant  produced 

by  Different  Organs. 

§  77.  Before  the  labial  spirant  /  every  dental  or  guttural 
stop  was  changed  into  a  labial  stop. 

This  assimilation  is  latent  because  the  labial  stop  was  later 
changed  into  a  spirant  owing  to  assimilation  of  the  manner 
of  articulation  (§  67). 

Assimilation  between  a  Stop  and  a  Nasal  produced  by 

Different  Organs. 

§  78.  Before  the  labial  nasal  m,  every  dental  stop  was 
changed  into  a  labial  stop. 

As  in  §  77,  this  assimilation  is  latent,  and  its  results 
altered  by  a  secondary  assimilation  of  the  manner  of  articu- 
lation (§  70). 

Note  —In  this  instance  the  reconstruction  of  the  latent 
assimilation  of  the  dental  stops  to  labial  stops  before  m  is 
based  partly  on  the  physiological  difficulty  of  a  direct  change 
from  -dm-  and  -tm-  to  -mn-,  and  partly  on  the  very  pro- 
nounced tendency  to  labialise  a  dental  stop  followed  hym, 
which  is  seen  in  other  languages  as  well  as  Latm.  Thus 
in  the  Swiss  pronunciation  of  modern  German,  written 
words  like  Bacimeister  ('  bath-attendant '),  Mitoensch  ('  fel- 
low-creature '),  we  seem  to  hear  Bai?meister,  Mii^mensch. 

Assimilation  of  Dental  Spirant  s  to  Labial  Spirant  /. 
§  79.  The  dental  spirant  s  of  the  prefix  dis-  is  assimilated 

to  a  following/; 

-rf-  >  ./f- 

Compare  :  di/f6ro,  from  *disf6ro. 

di/flcilis,    from    *di«facilis     (with    umlaut) 

(§  10,  i.  c). 


^1 


^^^f^e^F^-r9=v?4'Ss  ■  .^^^^ 


80 


LATIN    PHONETICS 


Restorations  due  to  analogy:  di/fido,  di/fundo,  which 
have  replaced  *di/ido,  *di/undo,  the  only  regular  forms 
(§  56  (1)). 

Assimilation  between  Nasals  and  Stops, 

§  80.  Only  the  corresponding  nasal,  i.e.,  formed  by  the 
same  organ  as  the  stop,  can  precede  a  stop. 

Examples. 

The  prefixes  c5m-  (comes),  in-  (ineo)  and  the  negative 
particle  in-  (in-utilis)  end  in  m  before  a  labial  stop,  in  n 
before  a  dental  stop,  and  in  n  (written  n  owing  to  the  lack 
of  a  special  letter  to  denote  the  nasal  guttural  (§  6,  note  3)) 
before  a  guttural  stop  ;  compare  :— 

(i.)  compono,  contexo,  concenatio  pronounced  concenatio. 

(ii.)  imbuo,  induro,  ingenues  pronounced  ingenues. 

(ill.)  imbellis,  i/itactus,  inquietus  pronounced  iwquietus. 

Moreover,  the  change  from  m  to  n  before  a  dental  stop 
and  to  h  before  a  guttural  stop  is  seen  in  the  following 
cases : — 

eu?idem,  eandem  (eum,  earn  +  dem). 

eorundem,  earundera  (eoru?/i,  earu7?i  +  dem). 

quandiu  (quam  +  diu). 

septendecim  (septe?;i  +  decern). 

clanculum  (adv.  'secretly'  and  prep.  *  without  the 
knowledge  of,'  found  in  Plautus  and  Terence)  pronounced 
clanculum ;  cf.  cl&m,  which  has  the  same  meanings. 

tunc,  pronounced  tunc  (tu7?i  +  enclitic  ce  (§  31  (1)). 

tanquara,  pronounced  taAquam  (taw  +  quam). 

Restorations  due  to  analogy:  eumdem,  eawdem, 
eoruwdem,  earuwidem,  quawdin,  septemdecim,  tawquam, 
duplicate  forms  of  euwdem,  etc. ;  suwptus  (with  develop- 
ment of  a  parasitic  p  (§  85)),  perf.  part.  pass,  of  su?wo 
for  suwtus.    The  latter  form,  however,  existed  in  Vulgar 


" 


^ 


I 


COMBINATIONS    OF   CONSONANTS  gi 

Latin  and  survives  in  certain  Romance  forms.  It 
IS,  moreover,  probable  that  the  restoration  of  the 
etymological  forms  eu^wdem,  etc.,  was  at  first  purely 
literary,  that  is  to  say,  the  same  people  who  wrote  with 
the  m  none  the  less  continued  to  pronounce  the  words 
euwdem,  etc. 

Assimilation  of  the  Nasal  Dental  to  the  Nasal  Labial. 

§  81.  The  nasal  dental  n  is  assimilated  to  the  nasal 
labial  m  wherever  the  preposition  or  negative  particle  in- 
precedes  a  word  beginning  with  m. 

nm  >  mm. 

Examples. 

immolo  from  inmolo  (properly,  « I  sprinkle  the  head  of 
the  victim  with  the  sacred  flour  called  mola). 
i?/imerito  from  irimerito. 

Restorations  due  to  analogy:  inmolo,  inmerito, 
duphcate  forms  of  i^wmolo,  i^wmerito ;  iwmuto,  immitis, 
the  phonetic  forms  being  *imuto,  ^imitis  (§  56  (1)). 

II.  Treatment  of  g^  and  gv  before  a  Consonant. 

§  82.  Before  a  consonant  the  labialised  guttural  stops 
g"^  and  2-  (written  gu  and  gu  (§  39))  lost  their  labial 
appendix  and  were  changed  into  pure  gutturals  g  and  c. 
Moreover,  if  the  following  consonant  was  breathed— and 
that  is  true  of  all  the  examples  that  can  be  adduced  of 
the  combination  g^  +  consonant— the  voiced  g  became 
a  breathed  c  (§  62).    Hence  :— 

g,  q^  +  consonant  >  c  +  consonant, 

F 


vll 


,p^' "?  ^'' 


•) 


g2  LATIN   PHONETICS 

Examples. 

extincsi,  written  extinxi,  perfect  of  exi'mguo. 
nks,  written  nix,  )(  the  genitive  nivis  that  goes  back  to 
*  ni^ns  (§  39). 

unctio,  )(  ungfuentura. 
assecla  ('a  hanger-on'),  )(  &sseq(ior. 
coctiis,  perf.  part.  pass,  of  co^uo. 
delictum,  )  (  delin^wo. 
This  law  explains  also  ac  and  nee,  duplicate  forms  of 
at^./e  and  ne^.^e,  and  used  when  the  following  word  begins 
with  a  consonant.     After  the  loss  of  the  final  e  of  atque 
and  neque  (§  31  (1))  the  labialisation  of  qu  disappeared 
under  the  influence  of  the  following  consonant.     Hence 
♦ate  and  nee;  *atc  was  then  assimilated  into  *acc  (§  76), 
and  finally  the   double   cc  was  reduced  to   a    single    c 
(§  56  (4)). 
III.  Treatment  of  the  Combination  Dental  Stop  +  t 
§  83.   From  the  Indo-European  epoch  the  combination 
of  a  dental  stop  and  t  gave  rise  to  the  development  of 
a  medial  parasitic  s.     Hence  the  combination  tst,  which 
in  Latin  became  ss  by  a  double  assimilation. 

d^  t  +  t  >  tst  >  ss. 
Examples. 
cas5us  from  *cMtns  (carfo ;   for  the  lengthening  of  the 
radical  vowel  in  this  word  and  the  two  followmg,  see 

§26). 

divissio  from  *divirfdo  (divin?o). 

essiis,  perf.  part.  pass,  of  e^o  ('  I  eat ')  from  *edios, 

plaus^us,  perf.  part.  pass,  of  plaurfo,  from  ^plauc^^os. 

Lsus,  perf.  part.  pass,  of  sedeo,  from  ^sedtos  (on  the 
probable  reason  why  the  radical  vowel  in  sessus  is  not 
lengthened,  see  §  26). 

messis  from  *me«is  (me^o). 

passus  sum,  perfect  of  pador,  from  ♦paWos  sum. 

quassus,  adj.  old  perf.  part.  pass,  of  qua^o,  from  *qua«os. 


V 


f 


'} 


COMBINATIONS    OF   CONSONANTS  83 

After  a  long  vowel  and  diphthong  the  double  ss  was 
reduced  to  a  single  s  from  the  end  of  the  first  century 
B.C.  Cicero  still  pronounced  and  wrote  ca^^us,  etc.,  but  in 
Qumtihan's  time  these  words  were  spelt  casus,  etc. 
(§  ^S)- 

§  84.  In  a  certain  number  of  cases  the  combination 
dental  stop  +  t  was  formed  afresh  after  the  development 
traced  above  which  ended  well  before  the  historical  period. 
The  result  of  this  second  evolution  was  not  now  -ss-  but 
-«-.  This  happened  especially  when  the  prefix  ad-  was 
combined  with  a  verb  that  began  with  t ;  cf.  :— 
Aftenuo  from  a,dtenuo. 

a«uli,  perfect  of  affero  (assimilated  from  adfero,  S  67) 
from  arf^uli.  '  ^      ' 

^    The  prefixes  attached  to  verbs  were  in  fact  originally 
independent  words,  and  this  character  had  not  yet  been 
lost  completely  iu  Plautus'  time ;  cf.  Trmummus,  v.  833  : 
dixtraxissent  disque  tulissent  .  .  . 

Thus  the  combination  dt-  in  adtenuo,  adtuli,  was  too 
recent  to  be  affected  by  the  law  that  caused  for  example 
the  change  of  *sedtos  to  sessus  (see  above).  Hence  we 
get  attenuo,  attuli.  It  should  be  added  that  by  the  side 
of  a^j^enuo,  a«uli,  restored  duplicate  forms,  ac/^enuo,  B.dtxi\i 
are  also  found  in  inscriptions  and  manuscripts. 

IV.-Development  of  a  parasitic  sound  in  certain 
combinations  of  two  consonants. 

§  85.  Between  the  two  elements  of  the  combinations  sr 
(as  far  as  it  represents  an  earlier  dtr,  see  §§  56  (2),  83), 
ml,  ms,  mt,  a  parasitic  transitional  sound  developed,  which 
in  the  case  of  5r  was  a  t,  and  in  that  of  ml,  ms,  mt^p 


■^^ 


m 


mMfrmm 


84 


LATIN   PHONETICS 


COMBINATIONS    OF   CONSONANTS 


85 


(i.)  sr  >  s^. 
(ii )  ml  >  mp\. 
ms  >  mps. 
int  >  mpt 

Examples. 

(1)  clausftnim,  from  *clausrom,  ♦claudtrom  (claudo). 
ras^rum,  from  *rasrom,  *radtrom  (rado). 
tons^rix,  from  *tonsrix,  *tondtrix  (tondeo). 

(2)  exem;?lum,  from  *exemlom  (properly  '  that  which  is 
taken  out  as  a  sample,'    from   *exemo,    which   became 

eximo  (§  10,  i.  &)).  ^    ^ 

com;>si,    demi^si,    prompsi,    sum;)si,    perfects    of   como, 

demo,  promo,  sumo,  from  *comsi,  Memsi,  •promsi,    sumsi 

(c/.,  for  example,  dixi,  i.e. ,  dicsi,  perfect  of  dico). 
oom;)tus,  dem;?tus,  prom;>tus,  sumi?tus,  from    comtus, 

♦demtus,  *promtus,  *sumtus. 

In  popular  speech  a  parasitic  p  developed  also  in  the 
combination  -mn-,  fts  is  shown  by  the  spellings,  such  as 
autumjonus,  contem;?no,  som;?nus,  which  are  found  fre- 
quently in  vulgar  texts.  Educated  people  absolutely 
eschewed  this  pronunciation. 

Note.— (i.)  *comtus,  Memtus,  *promtus,  ♦sumtus  ought 
to  have  become  *contus.  Mentus,  *prontus  *suntus  (§  80) ; 
but  the  VI  was  restored  by  analogy. 

(ii.)  If  the  parasitic  consonants  were  relatively  few  in 
Latin,  French,  on  the  other  hand,  is  rich  in  them,  cf. 
O.F.  ances^re,  es^re  from  Latin  antecess(o)r,  *ess(e)re ; 
mod.  Fr.  com&ler  from  Latin  cum(u)lare,  nom&re  from 
num(e)rum,  ponrfre  from  pon(e)re,  etc. 

v.— Loss  of  the  first  element  of  a  combination  of 

two  consonants. 

§  86.  Before  a  voiced  consonant,  s  changed  to  z  (§  63), 
and  then  was  lost  with  a  compensatory  lengthening  of 
the  preceding  vowel  if  the  latter  was  short  (§  25  (1)). 


> 


1^ 


i. 


Examples. 

idem,  from  *rsdem  (is  +  dem),  which  became  first  *Lcdem. 

judex,  from  *ju5dex  ('  quod  jus  dicat ') ;  -dex  for  -dix  by 
analogy  of  the  second  element  of  compounds  like  auspex, 
opifex,  etc.,  according  to  the  proportional  formula,  aus- 
picis,  opificis:  auspex,  opifex  =  j udicis  :x),  'jusdex. 

tredecim,  from  *tresdecim,  *tre2decim. 

prelum  ('  wine-press'),  from  *preslom  {cf.  pres-si,  perfect 
of  premo),  *pre2lom. 

primus,  from  *prismos  {cf.  prisons),  *prizmos. 

egenus,  from  *egesnos  {cf.  egestas),  *ege2nos. 

pono,  from  *pos(r)no  (§  25  (1)),  *po:;no. 

Cf.  also  diduco,  digero,  dilanio  (*  I  tear  in  pieces '), 
dimitto,  dinosco,  as  against  distorqueo,  discedo,  dispone, 
dissocio. 

Restorations  due  to  analogy  :  ejusdem,  quibusdam,  after 
ejus  and  quibus. 

§  87.  Before  /  and  5  the  nasal  dental  n  lost  its  stop 
character  at  an  early  date;  the  vibrations  set  up  in  the 
glottis  during  this  sound  were  then  attracted  to  the  pre- 
ceding vowel,  lengthening  it  by  way  of  compensation  when 
it  was  short  (§  25  (2)). 

The  loss  of  n  in  this  position  is  proved  (i.)  by  spellings 
like  iferos,  cesor,  cosol,  found  frequently  on  archaic  in- 
scriptions ;  (ii.)  by  the  abbreviation  cos.  for  consul ; 
(iii.)  by  the  testimony  of  Quintilian  (§  25  (2)) ;  (iv.)  by 
*  inverse  spellings '  in  vulgar  texts,  e.g.^  occawsio,  thew- 
saurus  for  occasio,  thesaurus ;  (v.)  by  the  Romance 
languages,  q/*.,  for  example,  the  French  Spouse,  mois,  toise 
'  fathom '),  which  go  back  to  sposa,  mesem,  tesa.  But  at 
an  early  period  etymological  considerations  caused  the 
restoration  of  w,  first  in  the  spelling,  and  then,  owing 
to  the  instinctive  popular  tendency  to  harmonise  the 
spoken    with   the    written    language,    partially    at    any 


■srs 


86 


LATIN    PHONETICS 


rate  in  pronunciation.  This  happened  especially  in  the 
case  of  compounds  with  con-  and  in-.  Hence  the  French 
cowseil,  e;jfant,  ewsemble,  that  develop  from  consilium, 
infantem,  iwsimul. 

B.    Combinations  of  Three  Consonants. 

§  88.  Combinations  of  three  consonants  were  reduced 
most  frequently  to  two  consonants,  but  occasionally  even 
to  one.     The  simplification  to  two  consonants  was  due — 

(1)  To  the  assimilation  of  two  consonants  of  the  com 

bination,  after  which  the   double  consonant  was 
made  a  single  one. 

(2)  To  the  loss  pure  and  simple  of  a  consonant  under 

conditions  formulated  below. 

The  simplification  to  a  single  consonant  was  due  {a)  to 
the  combination  of  the  one  or  other  of  these  two  causes 
with  the  loss  of  an  s,  or  {h)  to  the  loss  of  ns  before  a  voiced 
consonant. 

Assimilation  and  Simplification  of  a  double  consonant 
along  with  a  possible  loss  of  an  s. 

§  89.— Examples. 

(a)  aspiro  from  arfspiro,  *a5spiro  (§§  68,  56  (2)). 

asto  from  arfsto,  *a5sto  {§§  68,  56  (2)). 

corculum,  from  *cor(iculom,  *corcculom  (§§  76,  56  (3)). 

sarmentmn,   from  *sarpmeiitom,    *sar7nmentom  (§§   70, 

56  (3)). 

arsi,  from  *arc?si,  *arisi  (§§  68,  56  (3)). 

sensi,  from  *seii^si,  *senssi  (§§  68,  56  (3)). 

nox  (i.«.,  noes),  from  *noc^s  (c/.  gen.  noc^is),  *noc5S  (§§  68, 

56  (4). 

testis,  from  *terstis  ('qui  tertius  stat'),  *tessti3. 

tostus,  perf.  part.  pass,  of  torreo  (originally  *torseo  (§  74)), 
from  *torstos,  *tosstos. 


v> 


* 
« 


;^ 


COMBINATIONS    OF    CONSONANTS 


87 


The  two  last  examples  might  seem  to  violate  the  law 
laid  down  in  §  74.  But  for  an  r  to  assimilate  a  following 
»,  the  latter  must  first  become  voiced,  which  in  the  case  of 
*terstis  and  "^torstus  was  impossible  owing  to  its  position 
before  the  breathed  /  (§  62).  Hence  the  assimilation  has 
been  regressive. 

Superstes  is  a  restoration  due  to  analogy ;  the  phonetic 
form  supestes  is  found  frequently  on  vulgar  inscriptions. 

(6)  pone,  prep,  and  adverb,  from  *posme   (c/.    superne), 
♦posnne,  *posne  (§§  69,  56  (3),  86). 

Loss  of  a  consonant  together  with  a  possible  loss  of  an  s. 
§  90.  A  guttural  stop  is  lost  between  r  or  I  on  the  one 
hand,  and  t,  s,  w  or  w  on  the  other,  and  also  between  n  and 

a  dental  stop. 

Examples. 

farsi  and  fartus  (farcio)  from  *farcsi,  *farctos. 

sarsi  and  sartus  (sarcio)  from  *sarcsi,  *sarctos. 

falsi  and  fultus  (fulcio)  from  *fiiksi,  *fulctos. 

ultus  (ulciscor)  from  *ulctos. 

tormentum,  from  *torg''mentom,  *torcmentom  (§  82 ; 
derived  from  the  root  of  torquQo). 

fulmen,  from  *ful9'men  (fulg-eo). 

quernus,  '  oaken,'  from  *quercnos  (qiiercus). 

quindecim,  from  *quinjw(e)decim,  *quincdecim,  *quin9'- 
decim  (§§  15,  82,  62). 

quintus,  from  ♦quing^tos,  quinctos  (§  82). 

The  combination  -?^c^  was  restored  by  analogy  in 
junctus,  unctus,  vinctus :  quinctus  is  also  found  by  the 
side  of  quintus  especially  in  proper  names,  Quinctus, 
Quinctius,  Quinctilis. 

§  91.  Every  labial  or  guttural  stop  was  lost  before  s 
followed  by  another  consonant.     When  the  final  consonant 


■«5 


^ 


88 


LATIN    PHONETICS 


of  the  combination  was  voiced,  s  was  lost  in  its  turn  along 
with  compensatory  lengthening  of  the  preceding  vowel  if  it 
was  short  (§  86). 

Examples. 

(a)  asporto,  from  *a;7sporto. 

ostendo,  from  *ojDstendo. 

suscipio,  from  *suj9Scapio  (with  umlaut  (§  10,  i.  c.)). 

The  prefixes  ops-  and  sups-  are  copied  from  aps-  according 
to  the  proportional  formula  ap-  {ab-) :  aps-  =  op-  {ob-)y  sup- 
{sub)  :  X. 

sescenti  from  sexcenti  {x  =  cs). 

Restorations  due  to  analogy :  a^stuli  (the  phonetic 
form  astuli  is  attested  by  the  grammarian  Charisius,^  1, 
p.  237,  2  k),  dexter,  juxta,  sextus,  etc.  These  restorations, 
however,  belonged  exclusively  to  the  literary  language; 
the  people  generally  knew  only  dester,  justa,  sestus,  etc., 
as  is  shown  (i.)  by  numerous  inscriptions  and  manuscripts 
written  in  the  common  language,  and  (ii.)  by  the  Romance 
tongues  (c/  Old  French,  destre,  jouste,  sistes). 

yote.— It  is  interesting  to  find  the  same  simplification  of 
the  combinations  guttural  stop  +  5  +  breathed  consonant  into 
8  +  breathed  consonant  in  modern  popular  French  (c/.  the 
common  pronunciations  esclure,  espliguer,  estraire). 

(6)  amitto,  from  *apsniitto. 

ebibo,  from  exbibo. 

sumo,  from  *su;?s(e)mo  (with  syncope  (§  15)). 

jumentum,  from  jouxmentum  (a  form  attested  by  the 
most  ancient  Latin  inscription  found  in  1899  in  the  Roman 
Forum  ;  (m  >  w  (§  23)). 

sedecim,  from  *sea;decim. 

tela,  from  *tea:la  (texo). 


1  [Charisius  was  a  grammarian  of  the  fourth  century  A.D.,  who 
transcnbed  passages  of  Palaemon  (35-70  A.D.),  the  author  of  the  Ars 
Crrammatica.] 


I 

I 
I 


« 


^J 


D 


.^ 


\ 


CONBINATIONS    OF    CONSONANTS  89 

Loss  of  the  Combination  -ns-  before  a  Voiced  Consonant. 

§  92.  The  examples  of  this  modification,  which  is  due  to 
the  combination  of  the  laws  formulated  in  §§  86  and  87, 
are  almost  exclusively  furnished  by  the  prefix  trans-  when 
it  precedes  a  voiced  consonant,  e.g.  : — 

traduco,  from  traTwduco. 
trameo,  from  tra?i5meo. 
trano,  from  transno. 

The  restorations  transduco,  transmeo,  transno,  etc., 
were  employed  by  the  side  of  these  phonetic  forms. 


VVV^ 


90 


LATIN    PHONETICS 


APPENDIX. 

THE  SYLLABLE. 

Division  of  Syllables. 

§  93.  The  combinations  of  sounds  that  we  call  words 
are  divided  into  as  many  sections  as  they  contain  vowels 
(or  diphthongs).  These  sections,  separated  from  each 
other  by  a  complete  or  partial  movement  of  closing,  or 
simply  by  a  cessation  of  the  vibrations  in  the  glottis,  are 
called  syllables. 

In  Latin  the  end  of  the  syllable  lay  immediately  after 
the  vowel  (or  diphthong)  when  this  was  followed  by 
another  vowel  or  single  consonant.  When  the  vowel 
(or  diphthong)  was  followed  by  two  consonants  or  a 
double  consonant,  the  consonantal  element  was  as  a 
rule  divided  between  the  preceding  and  following  syllable. 
An  exception  was  made  only  for  the  combination  stop  + 
trilled  or  divided  consonant,  both  of  which  were  attached 
to  the  following  syllable.  Lastly,  of  three  consonants  the 
first  and  the  second  belonged  to  the  preceding,  the  third 
to  the  following  syllable  unless  the  combination  was 
terminated  by  a  stop  followed  by  a  trilled  or  divided 
consonant.  In  this  case  the  break  came  after  the  first 
of  the  three  consonants. 

Examples. 

(i.)  (a)  me-us,  qui-es,  quo-ad. 

(6)  ca-do,    pauper,   cae-cus,   ro-sa,  do-mus,   si-nus, 
a-ra,  caelum. 

(ii.)  (a)  ag-raen,  pug-na,  prop-ter,  tec-tura,  ip-se,  aes-tas, 
pis-cis,  am-bo,  om-nis,  men-sa,  or-do,  pul-vis, 
but 
qua-drans,  a-trox,  fe-bris,  su-pra,  ae-gre,  lu-crum, 
locu-ples. 

We  must  set  aside  compounds  like  abrumpo,  sublatus, 
in  which  the  combination  between  the  stop  and 


I 


^» 


APPENDIX 


91 


the  tnlled  or  divided  consonant  was  much  less 
strong  because  the  prefixes  formed  for  a  very 
long  time  distinct  words  {§  84).  Hence  these 
words  were  divided,  ab-rumpo,  sub-latus. 

^nus^'*il-fi^"^''^  ^*  bunch),  siccus,  pos-sum,  an- 
(iii.)  abs-temius,  cons-picio,  ins-tituo,  temp-to,  sanc-tus, 
spectrum,  plaus-trum,  mem-brum,  tem-plum. 

.  Such  is,  at  least,  the  method  followed  by  the  best 
inscriptions  and  manuscripts,  which  reflects,  no  doubt 
faithfully,  the  phonetic  division.  The  principle  laid  down 
by  the  Koman  grammarians  from  the  fifth  century  of  our 
era  stipulates,  it  is  true,  that  all  the  combinations  which 
can  begin  a  word  must  be  joined  to  the  second  syllable 
(^.^.,  a-spice,  a-mnis,  ca-stra).  Their  remarks,  however,  are 
merely  subleties  of  the  imagination,  devoid  of  any  lingu- 
istic interest.  ^       ^ 

Duration  of  Syllables. 

§  94.  A  syllable  is  short  when  it  contains  a  short  vowel 
followed  by  a  single  consonant-^.^.,  the  first  syllable  of 
cado,  cdquo  {qu  being  a  single  sound  (§  39) )  • 

A  syllable  is  long  :— 

(i.)  When  it  contains  a  long  vowel  or  a  diphthong 
whatever  the  nature  of  the  consonantal  element 
that  folio ws-^.^,  the  first  syllable  of  paene, 
actus  (§  26),  faustus. 

(ii.)  When  it  contains  a  short  vowel,  followed  by  a 
double  consonant,  or  a  combination  of  con- 
sonants —  e.^.,  the  first  syllable  of  messis,  cf. 
m6to  (§83);  sella,  cf,  s6deo  (§71);  neptis, 
grand-daughter'  or  'niece,'  cf.  ngpos  (§33)- 
tango,  c/.  tetigi  from  ^etagi  (§  10,  i.,  c).  An 
exception  is  formed  by  the  syllables  containing 
a  short  vowel  followed  by  the  combination 
stop  -f  trilled  or  divided  consonant,  which  with 
the    early   Latin    dramatists    are  always  short, 


I 


-        -^ 4.< 


92 


LATIN   PHONETICS 


e.g.,  patrgm,  l5ctiples.  The  poets  of  the  classical 
period,  it  is  true,  reckon  them  sometimes  short, 
sometimes  long  e.g.y  Ovid,  Met.,  xiii.  607  : — 

Et  prirao  similis  volucri,  mox  vera  volucrls. 

The  lengthening  in  this  case,  however,  is  known  to  be 
due  to  erudite  imitation  of  Greek  prosody. 

[In  repeating  a  word  the  Roman  poets  constantly  vary 
the  quantity  in  order  that  the  ictus  may  fall  differently  on 
it.  Cf.  Vergil,  Aen.,  2,  663 :  gnatum  ante  ora  patris, 
patrem  qui  obtruncat  ad  aras ;  Hor.,  Oc?.,  i.  32,  11  :  et 
Lycum  nigris  oculis  nTgroque.  Cf.  Monro  on  lAicr.^  4, 
1259  :  crassane  conveniat  liquidis  et  liquida  crassis.] 

§  95.  According  to  the  Roman  grammarians,  the 
syllables  which  are  long  in  spite  of  the  short  quantity 
of  the  vowel  they  contain,  are  long  positione  or  positu, 
Cf.  Quintilian,  Instit.  Orat.,  9,  4,  86  :  certe  in  dimen- 
sione  pedum  syllaba  quae  est  brevis  insequente  vel  brevi 
alia,  quae  tamen  duas  priores  consonantes  habeat,  fit 
longa,  ut :  agrestem  tenui  musam  ...  a  brevis,  gres 
brevis,  faciet  tamen  longam  priorem.  dat  igitur  illi  aliquid 
ex  suo  tempore.  Quo  modo,  nisi  habet  plus  quam  quae 
brevissima,  qualis  ipsa  esset  detractis  consonantibus  ? 
nunc  unum  tempus  accommodat  priori  et  unum  accipit 
a  sequente ;  ita  duae  natura  breves  positione  sunt 
temporum  quattuor;  cf.  also  Aulus  Gellius,  Noct. 
Attic,  iv.  17,  8,  who  says,  in  reference  to  suhicit,  that 
the  i  vim  consonantis  capit  et  idcirco  ea  syllaba  produc- 
tius  latiusque  paulo  pronuntiata  priorem  syllabam  brevem 
esse  non  patitur,  sed  reddit  eam  positu  longam.  The 
terms  positione  or  positu,  translated  from  the  Greek,  like 
the  majority  of  the  technical  terms  of  Latin  grammar, 
mean  properly  '  by  convention.'  The  Greek  scholars 
of  rhythm,  in  fact,  imagined  that  the  syllables  which 
enclosed  a  long  vowel  were  naturally  long  by  them- 
selves ;  while  the  syllables  which  enclosed  a  short  vowel 
followed  by  a  double  consonant,  or  a  combination  of  con- 
sonants, were  long  through  an  arbitrary  whim — a  free  and 


'*) 


ri 


o 


APPENDIX 


93 


voluntary  arrangement.  But  the  Romans,  who  were  indif- 
ferent to  the  question  discussed  by  the  Greek  philosophers, 
as  to  whether  names  have  been  attached  to  things  through 
natural  inspiration  or  artificial  convention,  soon  misunder- 
stood the  meaning  of  positione  or  positu,  and  used  these 
terms  in  the  sense  'by  position,'  i.e.,  by  the  position  of  the 
vowel  before  a  repeated  consonant  or  a  combination  of 
consonants. 

The  explanation  of  the  lengthening  '  by  position  '  lies  in 
the  phonetic  division  of  the  syllables.  A  consonantal  ele- 
ment shared  between  two  syllables  lengthens  the  preceding 
syllable,  an  consonantal  element  not  shared  between  them 
leaves  it  short.  It  is  not  the  consonants  which  add  length 
but  the  pause  which  separates  them.  Note  also  that  it  is 
not  the  vowel  but  the  syllable  which  is  long  by  position 


[SPECIMENS  OF  OLD  LATIN. 

L 

From  the  Laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables,  451  B.C.  (see 
Wordsworth,  Fragments  and  Specimens  of  Early 
Latin,  p.  254).  ^ 

(1)  Si  in  ius  vocat,  ito.     Ni  it,  antestamino ;  igitur  em 
capito.      (2)    bi   calvitur   pedemve  struit,   manum   endo 
lacito.      (3)    bi    morbus   aevitasve  vitium   escit   (qui   in 
lus  vocabit)  lumentum  dato ;  si  nolet  arceram  ne  sternito 
I.e.,  (1)  If  he  (the  accuser)  summons  (him,  the  accused) 
before  the  law  let  him    go.      Unless  he  goes  let    him 
(the  accuser)    summon    him    (a   bystander)   to   witness* 
thereupon  let  him  (the  accuser)  take  him  (arrest  him)! 
(2)  It  he  (the  defendant)  tries  to  shirk  or  runs  away  let 
him  (the  accuser)  lay  his  hand  upon  him.     (3)  If  illness 
or  old  age  shall  be  his  weakness,  let  him  who  summons 
him  grant  him  a  vehicle ;   if  he  is  not  willing  let  the 
accuser  not  prepare  an  ambulance. 


h% 


4) 


'  W  "J         •«*■ 


94 


LATIN    PHONETICS 


11. 


APPENDIX 


95 


Sepulchral  Inscription  in  Saturnian  Verse. 

L.  Cornelias  L.  f(ilius)  Scipio,  Consul  259,  Censor  258 ; 
C*  1'  Jj.f  1.  32. 

hone  oino  ploirume  cosentiont  Romai 
duonoro  optumo  fuise  uiro 
Luciom  Scipione.     filios  Barbati 
consol  censor  aidilis  hie  fuet  apud  uos 
hec  eepit  Corsica  Aleriaque  urbe 
dedet  Tempestatebus  aide  meretod. 

hunc  unum  plunmi  consentiunt  Romae 
honorum  optimum  fuisse  virum 
Lucium  Scipionem.    Jilius  Barbati 
consul f  censor,  aedilis  hie  fuit  apud  vos  ; 
hie  eepit  Corsicam  Aleriamque  urbem, 
dedit  Tempestatihus  aedem  merito. 

III. 

Senatuseonsultum  de  Bacchanalibus  of  the  year  186 ; 
a  L  L.  i.,  196. 

Q.  Marcius  L.  f.  S.  Postumius  L.  f.  cos.  senatum  con- 
soluerunt  N.  Octob.  apud  aedem  Duelonai.  Sc.  arf.  M. 
Claudi  M.  f.  L.  Valeri  P.  f.  Q.  Minuci  C.  f.  de  Bacana- 
libus  quei  foideratei  esent  ita  exdeieendum  censuere. 
neiquis  eorum  Bacanal  habuise  uelet.  seiques  esent  quei 
sibei  deicerent  necesus  ese  Bacanal  habere  eeis  utei  ad 
pr.  urbanum  Romam  uenirent  deque  eeis  rebus  ubei 
eorum  uerba  audita  esent  utei  senatus  noster  decerneret 
dum  ne  minus  senatoribus  C  adesent  quom  ea  res  coso- 
leretur.  Bacas  uir  nequis  adiese  uelet  ceiuis  Romanus 
neue  nominus  Latini  neue  socium  quisquam  nisei  pr. 
urbanum  adiesent  isque  de  senatuos  sententiad  dum  ne 
minus  senatoribus  C  adesent  quom  ea  res  cosoleretur 
iousiset.  censuere.  sacerdos  nequis  uir  eset.  magister 
neque  uir  neque  mulier  quisquam  eset.     neue  pecuniam 


"il 


a' 


Of 


i 

<4 


quisquam  eorum  comoinem  habuise  uelet  neue  magistra- 
tum  neue  pro  magistratud  neque  uirum  neque  mulierem 
quisquam  fecise  uelet.  neue  post  hac  inter  sed  coniou- 
rase  neue  comouise  neue  conspondise  neue  eonpromesise 
uelet  neue  quisquam  fidem  inter  sed  dedise  uelet.  sacra 
m  oquoltod  ne  quisquam  fecise  uelet  neue  in  poplicod 
neue  in  preiuatod  neue  exstrad  urbera  sacra  quisquam 
fecise  uelet  nisei  pr.  urbanum  adieset  isque  de  senatuos 
sententiad  dum  ne  minus  senatoribus  C  adesent  quom 
ea  res  cosolereretur  iousiset.  censuere.  homines  pious 
y  omuorsei  uirei  atque  mulieres  sacra  ne  quisquam 
fecise  uelet  neue  inter  ibei  uirei  pious  duobus  mulieri- 
bus  pious  tribus  arfuise  uelent  nisei  de  pr.  urbani  sena- 
tuosque  sententiad  utei  suprad  scriptum  est.  haiee  utei 
in  eouentionid  exdeicatis  ne  minus  trinum  noundinum 
senatuosque  sententiam  utei  scientes  esetis.  eorum 
sententia  ita  fuit  sei  ques  esent  quei  aruorsum  ead  fe- 
cisent  quam  suprad  scriptum  est  eeis  rem  caputalem 
faciendam  censuere.  atque  utei  hoce  in  tabolam  ahenam 
inceideretis  ita  senatus  aiquom  censuit  uteique  eam  figier 
ioubeatis  ubei  faciluraed  gnoscier  potisit  atque  utei  ea 
Bacanalia  sei  qua  sunt  exstrad  quam  sei  quid  ibei  saeri 
est  ita  utei  suprad  scriptum  est  in  diebus  X  quibus 
uobeis  tabelai  datai  erunt  faciatis  utei  dismota  sient. 

Q.  Marcius  L.  f(ilius),  S(purius)  Postumius  L.  f(ilius) 
cons(ules)  senatum  consuluerutit  Nfofiis)  Octob(ribus)  apud 
aedem  Bellonae.  Sc(ribendo)  adf(uerunt)  M.  Claudi(us)  M. 
/(ilius),  L.  Valeri(us)F./(iliusX  Q.  Miniici(us)  C.J(ilius). 
de  Bacchanalibus  qui  foederatl  essent  ita  edicendum  cen- 
suere. nequis  eorum  Bacchanal  habuissevellet.  siqui  essent 
qui  sibi  dicerent  necesse  esse  Bacchaiml  habere,  ei  uti  ad 
pr(aetorem)  urbanum  Romam  venii-ent,  deque  eius  rebus, 
ubi  eorum  verba  audita  essent,  uti  senatus  noster  decerneret 
dum  ne  minus  senatoribus  C adesseni  cum  ea  res  consulerefur. 
Bacchas  vir  nequis  adiisse  vellet  civis  Romanus,  neve  nomifiis 
Latini,  neve  socioi^um  quisquam,  nisi  pr(aetorem)  urbanum 
adiissent,  isque  de  senatus  sententia,  dum  ne  minus  senatoribus 
C  adessent  cum  ea  res  consuleretur,  jussisset.  censuere. 
sacerdos  iiequis  vir  esset.  magister  neque  vir  neque  mulier 


i 


96 


LATIN    PHONETICS 


quaequam  esset.  neve  pecuniam  quisquam  eorum  communem 

habuisse  vellet,  fieve  magistratum^  neve  pro  magistratu  neque 

virum  neque  mulierem  quisquam  Jecisse  vellet.     ?ieve  posthac 

inter  se  conjurasse  neve  convovisse  neve  conspondisse  neve 

compromisisse  vellet  neve  quisquam  fidem  inter  se  dedisse 

vellet.   sacra  in  occulta  ne  quisquam  fecisse  vellet^  neve  in 

publico  neve  in  privato,  neve  exti-a  urbem  sacra  quisqtiam 

fecisse  vellet,  nisi  pr(aetorem)  urbanum  adiisset,  isque  de 

senatus  sentential  dum  7ie  minus  senatoribus  C  adessent  cum 

ea  res  consuleretur,  jussisset.    Censuere.  homines  plus  V  uni- 

versij  viri  atque  mulieres,  sacra  ne  quisquam  fecisse  vellet, 

neve  interibi  viri  plus  duobus  mulieri bus  plus  tribus  adfuisse 

vellent,  nisi  de  pr(aetoris)  urbani  senatusque  sententia,  uti 

supra  scriptum  est.    kaec  uti  in  contione  edlcatis  ne  minus 

trinum  nundinum,  senatusque  sententiam  uti  scientes  essetis. 

eorum  sententia  itafuit:  siqui  essent  qui  adversum  eafecis- 

sent,  quam  supra  scriptum  est,  eis  rem  capitalem  faciendum 

censuere.     atque  uti  hoc  in  tabulam  ahenam  incideretis,  ita 

senatus  aequum  censuit,  utique  eam  figi  jubeatis,  ubifacillime 

nosci  possit,  atque  uti  ea  Bacchanalia,  siqua  sunt,  extra 

quam  siquid  ibi  sacri  est,  in  diebus  X  quihus  vobis  tabellae 

datae  erunt  faciatis  uti  dimota  sint. 

IV. 

A  Christian  Epitaph  to  a  Husband. 

(in  Museo  Laterensi :  de  Rossi,  n.  62)  Fourth  Century  a.d. 

Depossio  luniani  pri  idus  Apriles 

Marcellino  et  Probino  conss. 

qui  bixit  annis  XL.  in  pace  decissit  et 

amator  pauperorum  vixit 

cum  Birginia  annis  xv.  benemerenti  Birginia  sua  Bictora 

Benemerenti  fecit  amatrix  pauperorum  et  operaria. 

i.e. 

Depositio  Juniani,  pridie  idus  Apriles,  Marcellino  et 
Probino  consulibus,  qui  vixit  annos  XL.  In  pace  decessit 
et  amator  paupermn  vixit  cuni  Virginia  annos  xv. 
Bene  merenti  Virginia  sua  Victoria  bene  merenti  fecit 
ainatrix pauperorum  et  operaria.'^ 


(, 


J\ 


INDEX. 

\_The  references  are  to  the  sections,], 


a,  67 

ab,  67,  91 
abdoucit,  22 
abduco,  62 
abeis,  30 
abeo,  30 
abicio,  15 
abies,  12 
abietis,  12 
abigo,  10  (1)  c 
abis,  30 
abjectus,  13  (1) 
abnego,  69 
abnuo,  69 
abs,  67 

abstineo,  10  (1)  h 
abstuli,  91 

ac,  31  (1),  82 
accedo,  56  (2) 
accipio,  10  (3) 
accresco,  56  (2) 
accus(8)o,  14,  22 
actito,  26 
actus,  26,  62  (1) 

ad,  38,  56  (2) 
adactus,  26 
adbibo,  76 
ades,  56  (4) 
adfero,  67,  71 
adfigo,  67 
adgero,  76 
adhibeo,  10  (3) 
adicio,  15 
adlatus,  71 
adloquor,  71 


admoveo,  70 
adnoto,  69 
adopto,  14 
adsequor,  68 
adspiro,  56  (2),  89 
adsto,  89 
adsum,  68 
adtenuo,  84 
adtuli,  84 
aedem,  20,  46  (2) 
aedes,  20 

aedificium,  10  (1)  c 
aediis,  20 
aere,  38 
aeri,  38 
aeris,  41 
aes,  38,  41 
Aeserninu(s),  42 
affero,  67,  71,  84 
affigo,  67 
agceps,  6  (iii.) 
agcora,  6  (iii.) 
agellus,  73 
ager,  73 
agger 0,  76 
agguliis,  6  (iii.) 
agilis,  29  {a) 

ago,10(l),26,29(.-), 

62  (1) 
ahenum,  35 
aide,  20,  46  (2) 
aides,  20 
Ai(i)ax,  48 
ai(i)o,  48 
aiiunt,  48 
airid,  38 
aliud,  38  (1) 


alius,  38  (1) 
allatus,  71 
alloquor,  71 
alvearia,  32 
ama,  31  (3) 
amare,  41,  42,  56  (4) 
amaris,  42 
amas,  56  (4) 
ambages,  26 
amitto,  91 
ammoveo,  70 
aranego,  69 
aranuo,  69 
anas,  44 
anceps,  6  (iii.) 
anchora,  35 
ancora,  6  (iii.), 
Ancu(s),  42 
angulus,  6  (iii.) 
animal,  31  (2) 
animalis,  31  (2) 
annecto,  69 
annitor,  69 
annoto,  69 
annus,  13  (1) 
anser,  44 
ap-,  91 
apere,  32 
aperio,  62 


35 


apio, 


21 


apiscor,  21 
Apollinis,  29  (6) 
Apolones,  29  (6) 
appeto,  1 
aps-,  91 

aptus,  13  (1),  21 
aquai,  30 


'^1 


^J^BS^^"'^^!^,*^^'^ 


msm 


98 

arbor,  48 

arbos,  43 

arceo,  13  (1) 

arcubas,  10  (3) 

arcus,  10(3) 

ardeo,  56  (3),  74,  89 

ardere,  15  {a) 

arenam,  41 

aridus,  15  (a) 

aries,  12 

arietis,  12 

arsi,  56  (3),  74,  89 

anindo,  44 

asa,  41 

ascendo,  13  (1) 

asenani,  41 

asiniis,  41 

aspiro,  56  (2),  89 

asporto,  91 

assecla,  82 

assequor,  68,  82 

assigno,  68 

assisto,  68 

assum,  68 

asto,  89 

astuli,  91 

atfeio,  67 

atfigo,  67 

atque,  31  (1),  82 

atapiro,  56  (2) 

attenuo,  8 1 

attingo,  14,  56  (2) 

attraho,  56  (2) 

attuli,  84 

auceps,     10,    15   (^), 

29(c) 
aucupis,  10 
audiit,  27 
and  ire,  41 
aiidivit,  27 
aufero,  91 
aula,  59  (2) 
aulai,  30 
aulla,  59  (2) 
aurai,  30 
aiirea,  32 
aurifex,  10,  29  (c) 
aurufex,  19 
aurum,  29  (c) 


LATIN    PHONETICS 


auspex,   1,   10  (1)  6, 

86 
auspicis,  1,   10  (1)  6, 

86 
auturapnus,  85 
auxiliaris,  45  (1) 
ave,  31  (3) 
avere,  31  (3) 
avis,  29  (r) 


B 

bac(c)a,  55 
Bacchus,  35 
barba,  13  (1) 
basis,  41 
benes,  31  (3),  36 
beni,  36 
bictor,  52 
biduom,  29 
biduum,  29 
biennium,  13  (1) 
biforis,  14 
biginti,  52 
bixi,  36 
bonorum,  46  (2) 


cado,  10  (i.)  r,  26,  83 
caedo,  14,  59  (2),  60, 

70 
caelum,  45  (2),  59  (2), 

71 
caeraentum,  60,  70 
Caepio,  35 
caeruleus,  45  (2) 
calcar,  31  (2) 
calcaris,  31  (2) 
caldus,  15  {a) 
calicis,  29  (a)  (1) 
calidus,  15  {a) 
calix,  29  (a)  (1) 
canalia,  56  (1) 
canna,  56  (1) 
cano,  10  (1)  c 
cantabam,  31  (2) 


cantabas,  31  (2) 
cantai,  51 
cape,  31  (1) 
capio,  10  (3),  29  (c) 
capitis,  10  (1)  c 
caput,  10  (1)  e 
carpo,  13  (1) 
cas(s)u8,   26,   41,  58, 

83 
cate,  31  (8) 
catus,  33  (x.) 
caus(s)a,  14,   22,  41, 

58 
-ce,  76 

cecTdi,  10  (1)  c 
cecidi,  14 
cecini,  10  (1)  c 
cena,  6  (i.) 
cera,  20 
Cereres,  29  (b) 
Cereris,  29  (b) 
cervical,  45  (1) 
cesor,  87 
Cetegus,  35 
Cethegus,  35 
ceu,  22 
chenturio,  35 
chommoda,  35 
chorona,  35 
chorus,  6  (iy.)  4 
cineris,  11 
cinis,  11 
cisium,  41 
cithara,  6  (iv. )  4 
cito,  10(1)  a,  31  (3) 
civis,  6  (i.) 
clam,  32,  80 
clanculum,  80 
clas(8)is,  58 
claudo,  14,  63,  85 
clausi,  63 
claustrum,  85 
coalesce,  32 
coctus,  82 
codiux,  53 
coegi,  32 
coepi,  21,  32 
cocrceo,  13  (1) 
coetus,  32 


I 


t 


c 


I 


cogo,  32 
coitus,  32 
colligo,  1,  10  (1)  b 
colloquium,  72 
collum,  66,  74 
columen,  18 
com-,  80 
comedo,  1,  14 
comes,  80 

comminuo,  10  (1)  « 
commoda,  35 
commoinis,  21 
communis,  21 
como,  32,  85 
comoinem,  21 
compitum,  10  (1)  & 
complodo,  24 
compono,  80 
compsi,  85 
comptus,  85 
con-,  25 
concenatio,  80 
concino,  10  (1)  c 
concrepuit,  25 
concussi,  68 
concutio,  15  (6),  68 
con  feci,  15 
con  fecit,  25 
confectum,  15 
confectus,  26 
conficio,  10  (l)c,  15, 

33 

confiteor,  10  jl)  c 

conflovout,  47 

confringo,  16 

conicio,  15 

coujeci,  15 

conjee  turn,  15 

conjicio,  15 
co(n)jux,  53 
conloquium,  72 
compono,  80 
conposuit,  25 
conquinisco,  76 
conscendo,  13  (1) 
consentio,  13  (3),  29 

(d) 
co(n)8entiont  29  (<?) 
consentiunt,  29  {d) 


INDEX 

conservos,  13  (3) 
consilium,  87 
conspicio,  56  (2) 
constiti,  1 
consuevit,  25 
coHsul,  87 
consularis,  45  (1) 
consules,  25 
contempno,  85 
contexo,  80 
conticesco,  10  (1)  c 
continues,  10  (1)  b 
contio,  32,  50 
contubernalis,  10  (3) 
convoco,  14 
copia,  32 
copula,  32 
coquo,  82 
coram,  32 

corculum,  56  (3),  89 
cordis,  56  (3) 
corniger,  10  (1)  « 
cornu,  10  (1)  c 
corona,  35 
corporis,  14 
corpus,  14 
corripio,  72 
corrumpo,  72 
corumpo,  72 
coruptus,  72 
cos,  33  (x.) 
cosol,  87 
coventio,  32,  50 
crebesco,  45  (4) 
crebresco,  45,  (4) 
crebrui,  45  (4) 
crebui,  45  (4) 
cubital,  45  (1) 
culm  en,  18 
cumulare,  85 
1    cup(p)a,  55 
'    currus,  30,  56  (1) 
curulis  56  (1) 
curvos,  13  (3) 


/ 


dabi(s),  42 
dacrima,  37 


99 

dare,  11,  38  (2)  b 
dato,  38  (2)  b 
datod,  38  (2)  b 
dator,  43 
datus,  10(l)c,33(x.) 

dautia,  37 
deamo,  32 
debere,  36 
decem,  50,  80 
decet,  16 
decido,  10(l)c 
decoris,  14 
decus,  14 
dedccus,  14 
dederont,  29  {d) 
dederunt,  29  {d) 
dedi,  10(i.)6 
dedicait,  51 
dedisco,  13  (3) 
deesse,  32 
defero,  40 
degi,  32 
dego,  32 
dehinc,  32 
deicerent,  19 
deico,  19 
deinde,  32 
delere,  41 
delictum,  82 
deligo,  10  (1)  b 
delinquo,  82 
-dem,  80,  86 
demo,  32,  85 
dempsi,  85 
demptus,  85 
dens,  33  (ii.) 
deorsum,  50 
descendo,  13  (1) 
deses.  29  (&) 
desidis,  29  {h) 
desilio  10  (2) 
despicio,  56  (2) 
desse,  32 
dester,  91 
destiti,  10  (1)  b 
desuper,  41 
detrectro,  13  (1) 
dexter,  91 
dextrorsum,  49 


n 


100 


LATIN    PHONETICS 


die,  31  (1) 

dico,  19,  85  (2) 

dicsi,  85  (2) 

dictus,  85  (2) 

diduco,  86 

die,  38  (2)  a 

diei,  27 

dies,  27,  38  (2)  a 

diifeideus,  19 

diffeido,  19 

differo,  79 

difticilis,  10(l)(r,  79 

diffido,  19,  79 

ditiiteor,  10(l)c 

diffundo,  79 

digero,  86 

diguus,   6   (iii.)»   16» 

69 
dilanio,  86 
dimico,  10  (1)  a 
dimidius,  10  (1)  h 
diraitto,  86 
dingua,  37 
dinosco,  25  (1),  86 
diribeo,  44 
dirimo,  41 
dis,  49 
dis,  56  (2) 
discedo,  86 
discerpo,  13  (1) 
discindo,  56  (2) 
disciplina,  15  {a) 
discipulus,  15  (a) 
disco,  13  (3) 
disertus,  56  (1) 
dispicio,  56  (2) 
displodo,  24 
dispone,  86 
dispute,  14 
disque  tulisseiit,  84 
disscindo,  56  (2) 
disseco,  1 
dissentio,  13  (3) 
dissimilis,  56  (2) 
dissocio,  86 
disspicio,  56  (2) 
disto,  56  (2) 
distorqueo,  86 
dite,  49 


diti,  49 
ditior,  49 
ditis,  49 
ditissimus,  49 
diu,  80 

dives,  29  (6),  49 
divide,  83 

divis(s)io,  41,  58,  83 
divitior,  49 
divitis,  29  (6),  49 
divitissimus,  49 
dixi,  85  (2) 
doce,  31  (3) 
documentum,  10  (3) 
donis,  30 
denem,  30 
donum,  30,  33 
due  31  (I) 
duco,  22 
duo,  47 
duvo,  47 
dvoiioro(m),  46  (2) 


!    e-,  67 
I    earn,  80 

earadem,  80 

eandem,  80 
I    earum,  80 
j    earum dem,  80 
j    earundem,  80 
I    ebibo,  91  (6) 
'    ec-,  67 

ecfari,  67 

ecferet,  67 

editus,  10(l)c 

edo,  1,  14,  33(ii.),  83 

educe,  25  (1) 
edus,  20 

effectus,  13(i.),  26 
effero,  67 
efferus,  11 
effunde,  13  (3) 
egenus,  86 
egestas,  31  (3),  86 
eiius,  48 
ejus,  86 


ejusdem,  86 

emi,  33  (iv.) 

eraico,  10  (1)  a 

emo,  33  (iv.) 

endo,  13  (2) 

endostruos,  13  (2) 

ensiuni  29  (a) 

ensis  29  («) 

eo,  31  (3) 

eorum,  80 

eerumdem,  80 

eerundem,  80 

eque,  33  (i.) 

equom,  39,  46  (4) 

equos,  29,  33  (1) 

equus,  29 

erigo,  \0  {\)h 

erit,  41 

erus,  44 

es,  56  (4) 

esse,  38  (2)  &,  41,  56 
(4),  58,  65 

est,  33  (ii.),  41 

essus,  83 

etiam  nunc,  46  (i) 

eum,  80 
eumdem,  80 
eundeni,  80 
evideus,  10  (1)  a 
ex-,  56  (3),  67 
excerpo,  13  (1) 
excite,  10  (1)  a 
exemplum,  85  (2) 
exercee,  13  (1) 
exilium,  10  (2) 
eximo,  85  (2) 
explode,  24 
exsatie,  56  (3) 
ex(3)culpo,  56  (3) 
exsilium,  10  (2) 
exselve,  56  (3) 
exsomnis,  56  (3) 
ex(s)pelio,  56  (3) 
ex(s)truo,  56  (3) 
exsulans,  10  (2) 
exsulto,  17,  33 
extinguo,  82 
extinxi,  82 
exulans,  10  (2) 


>! 


\" 


r\ 


I 


faba,  36 

Fabaris,  45  (5) 

fac,  31  (1) 

facetus,  10  (1)  c 

facilis,  14 

facie,  10  (1)  c,  26,29 

(0,  33,  33  (ix.) 
facis,  29 
factito,  26 
factus,  13  (1),  26 
failla,  51 
Falerii,  11 
Falisci,  11 
fallo,  13  (1),  40 
familia,  10  (2) 
famulus,  10  (2) 
farcie,  74,  90 
Farfarus,  45  (5) 
farsi,  74,  90 
fartus,  90  . 
fateer,  10  (1)  c 
fa  villa,  61 
fax,  29 
feci,  33  (ix.) 
fefelli,  13(1),  40 
feido,  33  (iii. ) 
fel,  56  (4) 
fellis,  56  (4) 
fer,  31  (1) 
fere,  31  (3) 
ferentarium,  31  (3) 
feriae,  41 
ferimus,  10  (3) 
fere,  15  (6) 
ferre,  17,  65,  74 
ferrus,  11 
fesiis,  41 
festus,  41 
fhefhaked,  6  (iii.) 
fides,  33  (iii.) 
fido,  33  (iii.) 
filios,  29  id) 
filius,  29  {d) 
fimus,  27 
finio,  27 
finire,  27 


INDEX 

fie,  27 
fis,  27 

firmus,  13  (3) 
flagrare,  45  (3) 
Flaurus,  24 
flebam,  27 
flee,  27 
Florus,  24 
fluere,  47 

flumen,10(l)6,  29(^) 
fluminis,     10    (1)    &, 

29  (&) 
fluvere,  47 
fluvius,  47 
fodi,  33  (vii.) 
fedio,  26,  33  (vii.) 
foederum,  41 
feedesum,  41 
feedus,  33  (iii.) 
foidere,  33  (iii.) 
foidos,  33  ,iii. ) 
feres,  14 
forfex,  29  (6) 
forficis,  29  {b) 
foris,  14 
fossus,  26 
fovea,  50 
fragrare,  45  (3) 
frigora,  28 
frigus,  28 
fruontur,  13  (2) 
fruor,  47 
fruuntur,  13  (2) 
fruver,  47 
fulcio,  90 
fulcrum,  45  (1) 
fulgeo,  90 
fulsi,  90 
fulmen,  90 
fultus,  90 
fundo,  13  (3) 
Furii,  41 
Fusii,  41 


gaesum,  41 
gallina,  56  (1) 


101 

gallus,  56  (1) 
genera,  28 
generis,  29  (6) 
genetricera,  33  (\iii.) 
genetrix,  33  (viii.) 
geniter,  33  (viii.) 
genitorem,  33  (viii.) 
genui,  33  (ii.) 
genus,  29  (6) 
gere,  58 
gessi,  58 
gigne,  33  (ii.) 
Gianuarius,  53 
Giove,  53 
glacies,  27 
glaciei,  27 
glube,  60,  70 
gluma,  60,  70 
Gracchus,  35 
Graccus,  35 
gradior,  71 
grallae,  71 
gruis,  27 
grus,  27 

H 

habeo,  10  (3),  14 
haedus,  20 
banc,  76 
hance,  76 
harundo,  44 
haruspex,  29  (6) 
haruspicis,  29  {b) 
baud,  38 
haurio,  41 
haustum,  41 
have,  31  (3) 
havere,  31  (3) 
heme,  32 
heri,  20,  41 
herus,  44 
hesternus,  41 
hie,  56  (4),  76 
hiemis,  29  (b) 
hieras,  29  (&) 
hinsidias,  35,  44 
hirpex,  44 


G* 


102 

hoc,  56  (4),  76 
holus,  17,  44 
homo,  32 
honce,  76 
honestus,  33  (vi.) 
honor,  33  (vi.),  43 
hoDorem,  33  (vi.) 
honos,  43 
humerus,  44 
hunc,  76 


I 


iccirco,  76 

id,  76 

idcirco,  76 

idem,  25(1),  63,  86 

iferos,  87 

ilico,  10  (1)  d 

illacrimor,  14 

illatus,  72 

ille,  38  (1) 

illi,  27 

illido,  14 

illis,  30 

illius,  27 

illud,  38  (1) 

irabellis,  80 

imberbis,  13  (1) 

imbuo,  80 

immerito,  81 

iraminuo,  10  (1)  a 

iramitis,  81 

immolo,  81 

immuto,  81 

impudicus,  14 

in-,  25,  80 

iDceideretis,  19 

inceido,  19 

incido,  10  (l)c 

incido,  19 

incohare,  35 

incomparabilis,  36 

incomparavilis,  36 

indoctus,  25 

induro,  80 

industrius,  13  (2) 

ineo,  80 


LATIN    PHONETICS 


ineptu3,  13  (1) 
infantem,  87 
infelix,  25 
infero,  72 
iuferus,  15  {a),  33 
inficetus,  10  (1)  c 
infirmus,  13  (3) 
infra,  15  (a),  33 
ingenuos,  80 
inhumanus,  25 
immolo,  81 
innocuous,  56  (1) 
innoxius,  56  (1) 
inopia,  32 
inquietus,  80 
inrevocabilis,  72 
insanus,  25 
insidia8,  35,  44 
insimul,  87 
insulsus,  14 
intactus,  80 
intibum,  10  (3) 
introrsura,  49 
intubum,  10  (3) 
inutilis,  80 
invicem,  10  (1)  a 
Iphianassai,  30 
ipsi,  27 
ipsius,  27 
irpex,  44 
irrevocabilis,  72 
irrigo,  10  (1)  a 
irriguos,  10  (1)  a 
irritus,  10  (1)  c 
is,  86 

ita,  10  (1)  c,  28 
itidem,  10  (1)  c 


;    Julia,  53 
jumentum,  91  (6) 
junctus,  90 
jungo,  90 
junior,  15  (6),  32 
Jup(p)iter,  53,  55 
juris,  41 
jus,  41 
justa,  91  {a) 
Justus,  53 
juvenis,  32 
juventa,  47 
juxta,  91  {a) 

K 


K  =  Kaeso,  6  (i.) 

K  or  Kal  =  Kalendae, 

6  (i.) 
KA  =  capitalis,  6  (i.) 

kaput,  6  (i.) 
karus,  6  (i.) 
Kartago,  35 
KK  =  castrorum,  6(i.) 


jacio,  15 
jactus,  13  (1) 
Januarius,  53 
jouxmentom,  91  (6) 
Jove,  53 
judex,  86 
judicis,  86 


labor,  43 
labos,  43 
lac,  29 
lachrima,  35 
lacrima,  35,  37 
lacrimo,  14 
lactis,  29 
laedo,  14 
lases,  41 
lasibus,  41 
latrina,  32,  49 
lautia,.  37 
lautus,  37 
lavacrum,  45  (1) 
lavatrina,  32,  49 
lebare,  36 
lectus,  26 
legere,  11,  41 
legerupa,  11 
legifer,  11 


1 


♦ 


>j 


jI  K  )j 


v" 


legimus,  10  (3) 
lego,  1,  10  (1)  6,  16, 

26 
Lemuria,  45  (3) 
lene,  28 
leniit,  27 
lenire,  27 
lenis,  28 
lenivit,  27 
levare,  36 
liberta,  36 
libertabus,  36 
libertavus,  36 
libet,  10  (3) 
lictor,  31  (2) 
lictoris,  31  (2) 
lignum,  16,  69 
limpha,  6  (iv. )  4 
lingere,  37 
lingua,  37 
lit(t)era,  55 
lit(t)us,  55 
locus,  \0{\)  d 
loucos,  23 
lubet,  10  (3) 
Luciom,  46  (2) 
Lucium,  46  (2) 
lucrum,  45  (1) 
lucus,  23 
ludo,  68  (3) 
lunaris,  45  (1) 
lusi,  58  (3) 


M 

machina,  6  (iv.)  4 
Maesius,  20 
mage,  42 
magis,  42 

magistratu,  38  (2)  a 
magistratud,  38  (2)  a 
magistratus,    29   (a), 

38  (2)  a 
magnus,  33  (vi.)»  46 

(1) 
Maia,  48 

Maiia,  48 

maiiorem,  48 


INDEX 

majestas,  33  (vi.) 
majorem,  33  (vi.) 
majosem,  33  (vi.) 
majosibus,  41 
majus,  33  (vi.) 
male,  31  (3) 
manceps,  10  (3) 
mancipis,  10  (3) 
mancupis,  10  (3) 
manibus,  10  (3) 
manica,  10  (1)  e 
manifestus,  10  (3) 
manufestus,  10  (3) 
manus,  10(1)  c,  10(3) 
mare,  28 
maria,  28 
Mato,  35 
maxinius,  10 
med,  38 

medius,  10  (1)  h 
mel,  29 
meliorem,  41 
meliosem,  41 
meliosibus,  41 
mellis,  29 
merito,  38  (2)  a 
raeritod,  38  (2)  a 
meritum,  38 
mertare,  74 
mesem,  87 
Mesius,  20 
messis,  83 
raessui,  68 
messus,  26 
meto,  26,  68,  83 
mi,  32 

mico  10  (1)  a 
mihi,  32 
miles,  42,  56  (4),  68 

(2) 
milia,  59  (1) 
militaris,  45  (1) 
militis,  68  (2) 
mille,  59  (1) 
minimu'i,  10 
minuo,  10  (1)  a 
missus,  58 
mitte,  31  (1) 
mitto,  58 


103 


modo,  31  (3) 
moenia,  21 
moerus,  21 
mola,  81 
mons,  13  (2) 
mortalis,  45  (1) 
muc(c)iis,  55 
mulceo,  74 
mulsi,  74 

multum  ille,  46  (1) 
munire,  21 
raurus,  21 


N 

nausea,  41 
navalis,  45  (1) 
nee,  31  (1),  82 
necis,  29 
nemo,  32,  44 
nernpe,  76 
nepos,  33  (viii.) 
nepotem,  33  (viii.) 
neptem,  33  (viii.) 
neplis,  33  (viii.) 
neque,  31  (1),  82 
neu,  22,  31  (1) 
neuter,  22 
neve,  22,  31  (1) 
nex,  29 
nihil,  32,  44 
nil,  32 
ninguit,  39 
nisi,  41 

nivis,  29,  39,  82 
nix,  29,  39,  82 
noctis,  29,  89 
nonus,  50 
noutrix,  23 
novem,  50 
novitas,  10  (1)  <i,  12 
novos,  10  (1)  d,  12 
novus,  \Q  \\)  d 
nox,  29,  89 
nubo,  62  (1) 
nucis,  29 
numerum,  85 
numerus,  11 


I 


I 


104 

nupsi,  62  (1) 
nutrix,  23 
mix,  29 


ob-,  70,  91  (a) 
obdo,  62  (2) 
obduro,  64 
obfero,  67 
obfundo,  67 
obgero,  76 
obicio,  15 
obicit,  15 
obsideo,  10  (1)  6 
obtego,  1 
obtineo,  64,  67 
obtrecto,  13  0) 
occa(n)sio,  87 
occupo,  10  (3) 
ocquinisco,  76 
odi,  33  (vii.) 
odium,  33  (vii.) 
odor,  37 

oenus,  21 

ofella,  56  (1) 

offa,  56(1) 

oHero,  67 

otlicina,  67 

officio,  10  (1)  r 

offundo,  67 

cggero,  76 

oino(m),  21,  46(2) 

oinos,  21 

oisos,  21 

olere,  37 

olla,  59  (2) 

does,  30 

olus,  44 

omitto,  70 

op-,  70,91  (a) 

operio,  62  (2) 

operis,  41 

opfero,  67 

opfundo,  67 

opifex,  67,  86 

opificina,  67 

opificis,  86 


LATIN    PHONETICS 


opos,  29  {d) 
opprimo,  56  (2) 
oppugno,  56  (2) 
ops,  91  (ti) 
optimus,  10,  42 
optineo,  64 
opto,  14 
opturaus,  10 
opus,  29  (rf),  41 
Orcivius,  35 
ordinis,  29  {b) 
ordo,  29  {b) 
oris,  32 
OS,  29,  56  (4) 
OS,  32 

ossis,  29,  56  (4) 
ostendo,  91  {a) 
Otho,  35 
Oto,  35 


painientum,  51 
palam,  32 
Palilia,  45  (2) 
pango,  10(l)c 
paor,  51 
paorem,  51 
Fapisius,  41 
parco,  13  (1) 
paries,  12 
parietis,  12 

Parilia,  45  (2) 
pario,  11 
paro,  14 

passus  sum,  83 

patior,  83 

pausa,  41 

pavimentum,  51 

pavor,  51 

-pe,  76 

pedis,  12,  68  (2) 

pelegrinus,  45  (3) 

pellicio,  73 

pello,  17,  74 

pelluceo,  73 

pendo,  33  (i.) 

penna,  69 

peperci,  13  (1) 


peperi,  11 
pepigi,  10  (1)  c 
per-,  56  (2) 
perdisco,  13  (3) 
peregrinus,  45  (3) 
perfacilis,  14 
pergo,  56  (2) 
periclum,  45  (1) 
perlicio,  73 
perluceo,  73 
perrexi,  56  (2) 
perrumpo,  56  (2) 
pertinax,  10  (1)  6 
per  video,  10  (1)  « 
pes,  12,  68  (2) 
pessimus,  56  (3) 
peto,  1,  10  (1)  />,  69 
philtrum,  6  (iv.),  4 
pictai,  30 
picis,  29 
pietas,  12 
pijus,  47 

pios,  12 

pius,  12,  27,  47 

pix,  29 

plaudo,  24,  68  (3),  83 

plausi,  68  (3) 

plaus(s)us,  83 

plaustra,  24 

plebi,  64 

plebis,  64 

plebs,  64 

pleps,  64 

plodo,  24 

plostra,  24 

pluit,  47 

pluriraa,  41 

plusima,  41 

pluvia,  47 

pluvit,  47 

po-,  25(1) 

poclura,  45  (1) 

poena,  21 

Poenus,  21 

pollen,  18 

pondo,  33  (i.) 

pone,  89 

pono,  25  (1),  86 

porrigo,  10  (1)  6 


V 


\ 


n 


> 


c; 


{ 


positus,  25  (1) 
possumus,  10  (3) 
postbabeo,  14 
potes,  56  (4) 
praecho,  35 
praecino,  10  (1)  c 
praeda,  38  (2)  rt 
praesideo,  1,  10  (1)  b 
praestigiae,  45  (4) 
praestnngo,  45  (4) 
praidad,  38  (2)  a 
prelum,  86 
premo,  86 
pressi,  86 
primus,  86 
priscus,  86 
probai,  51 
probavi,  51 
prodigus,  10  (1)  c 
proditus,  10  (1)  c 
profiteer,  10  (1)  c 
prohibeo,  10  (3) 
promo,  85 

promontorium,  13(2) 
prompsi,  85 
promptus,  85 
promunturium  13  (2) 
propietas,  45  (4) 
propius,  45  (4) 
proprietas,  45  (4) 
proprius,  45  (4) 
protector,  26 
providus  1 0  ( 1 )  a 
pudicus,  14 
pulcer,  6  (iv.),  35 
pulcher,  6  (iv. ),  35 
Pulcher,  35 
pulsus,  17,  74 
pultare,  74 
pulveris,  11 
pulvinar,  45  (1) 
pulvis,  11,  18 
Punicus,  21 
punire,  21 
punis,  31  (2) 
punit,  31  (2) 
puta,  28,  31  (3) 
putare,  31  (3) 
puto,  14 


INDEX 


quae,  6  (i.) 
qomes,  6  (i.) 
quaerit,  20 
quaero,  20 
quairatis,  20 
quairo,  20 
quam,  80 
quamdiu,  80 
quandiu,  80 
quantum  erat,  46  (1) 
quasei,  31  (3) 

quasi,  31  (3) 
quassus,  83 

quatio,  83 

quercus,  90 

quern  us,  90 

queror,  41 

questus  sum,  41 

qui,  6(i.) 

quibus,  86 

quibusdara,  86 

quic^uara,  76 

quid,  76 

quidam,  86 

quidquam,  76 

Quinctilis,  90 

Quinctius,  90 

Quinctus,  90 

quindeeim,  90 

quintus,  MO 

quippe,  76 

quod,  6  (i.) 

quodlibet,  10  (3) 

qura,  6  (i.) 


rado,  59,60,71,85(1) 
rallum,  59,  71 
ramentum,  60 
rancidus,  14 
rapio,  10  (3) 
rastrum,  85  (1) 
ratus,  10  (1)  c 
raucus,  15  (a) 
ravis,  15  {a) 
reccidi,  15  {b) 


105 

recido,  15  (6) 
recipero,  10  (3) 
recupero,  10  (3) 
recurvos,  13  (3) 
reddere,  11 
reddidi,  10(1)6 
reducis,  29  {a)  2 
redux,  29  («)  2 
refectus,  13  (1) 
refero,  15  (6) 
reficio,  40 
regalis,  45  (1) 
rego,  10  (1)  6 
rei,  27 

rem,  33,  46  (4) 
remex,  29  c 
rcmus,  29  (c) 
re  pello,  15  (b) 
reperio,  11 
reppuli,  15  {b) 
res,  27,  33 
resedo,  41 
restiti,  10  (1)  6 
reatituo,  10  (1)  c 
reticeo,  10  (1)  c 
retro,  31  (3) 
retrorsum,  49 
rettuli,  15  (//) 
rexi,  62  (1) 
rigo,  10  (1)  rt 
romphaea,  6  (iv.),  4 
rosa,  30 
rosis,  30 
rufus,  40 


Sabelli,  69 
Sabini,  69 
saccus,  56  (1) 
sacellus,  56  (1) 
salio,  10  (2) 
salsus,  14 
salto,  33 
Salutes,  29  (6) 
Salutis,  29  (b) 
salvom,  46  (2) 
salvon,  46  (2)  (4) 
Samnium,  69 


1   t 


m^^^W^^^^m 


*    .   ^ 


106 


LATIN    PHONETICS 


sarcio,  90 

sarmentum,  56  (3),  89 
sarpere,  56  (3) 
sarsi,  90 
sartus,  90 
aatiilliis,  73 
satur,  73 
satus,  83  (ix.) 
scabellum,  69 
scamnum,  69 
scando,  13  (1) 
scindo,  56  (2) 
scribo,  62  (1) 
scriptus,  62  (1) 
scrofa,  40 
ae-,  10  (2) 
secludo,  l4 
seco,  26,  62  (2) 
sectio,  26 
secubo,  57,  76 
sed,  38(1) 
sed,  14,  76 
sedecim,  25  (1),  91  b 
sedeo,  1,10  (1)^26, 
33  (v.),  37,  71,  83 
sedes,  33  (v.) 
seditio,  76 
sedo,  41 
sedulo,  10  (2) 
segmentum,  62  (2) 
seligo,  10  (1)  b 
sella,  71 
semen,  33  (ix.) 
sensi,  56  (3),  89 
sentio,13(3),56(3),89 

fceorsum,  50 
separare,  14 
separo,  14,  57,  76 
sepero,  14 
septem,  80 
septemdecim,  80 
septendecim,  80 
septingenti,  16 
aepulchrum,    6    (iv. ) 

4,  35 
sepulcrum,  35,  45  (1) 
sequontur,  13  (2) 
serra,  56  (1) 
^erratus,  56  (1) 


servos,  13  (3) 
sescenti,  91 
sessus,  26,  83 

sestus,  91 

sen,  22 

sextus,  91 

si,  41 

sibei,  80 

sibi,  30,  32 

sibilare,  40 

siccus,  56  (3),  76 

Sicilia,  10  (2) 

Siculus,  10  (2) 

sido,  33  (T.) 

sifilare,  40 

similis,  10  (2) 

simulacrum,  45  (1) 

simulo,  10  (2) 

sis  (  =  si  vis),  49 

sitis,  76 

situs,  25  (1) 

soldus,  15  (a) 

solidus,  15  {a) 

solium,  33  (v.),  37 

somnus,  69 

sompnus,  85 

sopor,  69 

specimen,  10  (3) 

specie,  29  (6),  56  (2) 

speni,  31  (2) 

spes,  31  (2) 
-spicio,  56  (2) 

spiro,  56  (2) 
sposa,  87 
statuo,  10  (I)  c 
Stella,  59(1) 
stelio,  59(1) 
steti,  1,  10(1)6 
stilicidium,  59  (1) 
stilla,  59(1) 
stipes,  10  (1)  b 
stipitis,  10  (1)  b 
stiria59(l) 
stlocus,  10  (l)rf 
sto,  56  (2) 
stolidus,  18 
structum,  39 
struo,  13  (2),  39 
struvo,  39 


stultus,  18 
sub-,  91  (a) 
subdolus,  64 
subicio,  15 
subicit,  15 
subjectus,  13  (1) 
submitto,  70 
subrancidu3,  14 
substituo,  10  (1)  c 
subtilis,  64,  67 
subula,  27 
subveuio,  1 
succido,  76 
succiduos,  10  (1)  c 
sulphur,  6  (iv.)  4,  35 
sulpur,  35 
suramitto,  70 
summus,  56  (3),  63,  70 
sumo,  80,  85,  91  (6) 
sumpsi,  85 
sumptus,  80,  85 
sunt,  33  (ii.) 
sunto,  38  (2)  b 
suntod,  38  (2)  b 
suntus,  80 
suo,  27 
sup-,  91  (a) 
super,  41 
superue,  89 
superstes,  89 
suprrior,  63 
superus,  15  (a) 
supestes,  89 
suppingo,  16 
supra,  15  {a) 
sups-,  91  (a) 
suptilis,  64 
surripio,  10(3) 
surrupui,  10  (3) 
Buscipio,  91  (a) 
suscito,  10  (1)  rt 
sustineo,  1,  10  (1)  b 
Sustus.  58 
sutor,  27 


taberna,  10  (3) 
i    taceo,  10(l)c 


tf» 


M 


I 


f) 


-  tam,  46  (2),  80 

*'  f  *     y  tamquam,  80 

tan,  46  (2) 

tango,  10  (1)  c 

tanquam,  80 

ted,  38 

tego,  1,  33  (i.,  iv.) 

tegula,  33  (iv.) 

tela,  91  {b) 

temperi,  14 
' .  templum,  46  (1) 

temporis,  14 

tempus,  14 

teneo,  1,  10  (1)  b 

tesa,  87 

testis,  89 

tetigi,  10  (1)  c 

tetuli,  15  (6) 

texo,  91  (b) 
y  thensaurus,  87 

thesaurus,  6  (iv.)  4, 
87 

Thorius,  35 

tibi,  32 

tibicinium,  10  (1)  c 

toga,  33  (i.) 
tondeo,  85  (1) 
tonsor,  43 
m  tonstrix,  85  (1) 

•  Torius,  35 

tormentum,  90 
torqueo,  90 
torreo,  74,  89 
tostus,  89 
tot,  31  (1) 
totidem,  31  (1) 
tracto,  13  (1) 
tradere,  11 
tradidi,  10  (1)  b 
traduco,  92 
trameo,  92 
trano,  92 
transduco,  92 
transfundo,  13  (3) 
transigo,  10  (1)  c 
cransmeo,  92 
\  j^l    i»  transno,  92 

'     "^  ■      '  tredecim,  86 

triumpus,  35 


r," 


V^ 


INDEX 

Troiad,  38  (2)  a 
trucis,  29 
trux,  29 
tuber,  40 
turn,  80 
tunc,  80 
tunde,  31  (1) 
tundo,  30 
turturis,  29  (a) 
turtur,  29  (a) 
tutudi,  30 

U 

ulciscor,  90 
ultus,  90 
umbra,  46  (1) 
umerus,  44 
unctio,  82 
unctus,  90 
unguentuin,  82 
unguo,  90 
uni,  27 
unius,  27 
unum,  21,  46  (2) 
unus,  21 
urbi,  64 
urbis,  64 
urbs,  64 
urps,  64 
usus,  21 


vafer,  40 
valde,  15  {a) 
Valerii,  41,  43 
Valesii,  41,  43 
validus,  15  («) 
vapor,  43 
vapos,  43 
varietas,  12 
varies,  12 
varius,  12 
vehemens,  35 
velira,  17,  33 
velle,  17,  65,  74 
vellem,  17 


107 

venalis,  45  (1) 
vene,  36 
Veneres,  29  {b) 
Veneris,  29  (6) 
veni,  36 
venos,  13  (2) 
venustus,  13  (2) 
verber,  11 
verberis,  11 
verres,  74 
Vesuntionem,  36 
via,  47 

vicis,  10  (1)  a 
viden,  31  (3) 
video,  10(1)  a,  26 
vija,  47 
vilicus,  59  (1) 
villa,  f)9  (1) 
villum,  72 
vincio,  90 
vinclura,  45  (1) 
vinctus,  90 
vinum,  72 

vir,  29 

viri,  29 

viro,  46  (2,  4) 

viro(m),  29,  46  (2) 

virum,  29  (d),  46  (2) 

visus,  26 

vivont,  29 

vivunt,  29 

vixi,  36 

voco,  14 

volam,  17 

volebam,  17 

volneris,  11 

volnus,  11 

volo,  17,  33 

volui,  17 

voluptatem,  31  (3) 

vomer,  17 

vulnus,  17 


Zanuariu^,  i^S 
zephyrus,  6  (iv. ),  3 
zophyrus  6  (iv.),  3 
Zulia,  53 


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